The Quality of Sustainability Science: An Analysis

Abstract

Sustainability science becomes important in research to maintain quality and quantity of finding in solving society issues and problems. Various expertise commend and giving opinion towards sustainability science, which become a model that appropriate to applied in daily life. Sustainability science consists of normativity, urgency, inclusion of nonscientists, and interrelation of environment and society. Therefore, sustainability science is able to increase the quality of human life, while maintaining the environmental quality for coming generation.

Keywords: Quality, quantity, model, human life, environmental

Citation of Article:
Hua, A. K. (2016). The Quality of Sustainability Science: An Analysis. International Journal for Social Studies, 2(3), 76-87.


Introduction

Sustainability science becomes a very important for the scientific funding. There are two example programs in Research for Sustainability organized by the German Ministry of Education and Research, and the Science and Technology for Sustainability Program of the National Academies in the United States. Funding by itself does not legitimize sustainability science. However, it can be calls for reflection on such scientific activities, their key feature, and the reasons for them. There are some scientist regard themselves as sustainability science and who claim to do such science in the sustainability science (Hua, 2016a). So, if there are funding or a mere presumption to do science is sufficient to establish a scientific field. Sustainability science must continue on its practice and its feature if dogmatism is to be avoided. For this, there come out from a philosophical perspective four questions regarding key feature of Sustainability Science. How are this question dealt with strongly influences the quality of Sustainability Science. The respective choices and positions should be made explicit so as to avoid confusion and to improve understanding of the concept “sustainability science” (Hua, 2016a).

In this essay report, will be examines the key feature of the projects and research activities of sustainability science; which involves the features concept of “sustainability science” or “science for sustainability development”. These elements are normativity, the temporal character (urgency) of the research, the inclusion of nonscientists into sustainability science, and the task of understanding social and environment interrelations. This four factors concern the explication and articulation of values and principles (normativity), addressing the temporal relation of the research to what is at stake (urgency), the justified inclusion of nonscientists (participation), and the joint research of natural and social scientists (interdisciplinarity). These features make sustainability science difficult to evaluate according o the standards of disciplinary science, especially of the natural science. The overall field of sustainability science, with its explicit inclusion of normative considerations, seems to rest on shaky ground by the standards of customary disciplinary approaches. However, since the challenges of sustainability are real and unresolved, and a high quality of scientific inquiry desirable, a deeper understanding of these features matters. Philosophical considerations, in particular from philosophy of science, can contribute to this task. For the investigation of the quality of sustainability science, it is of primary importance to ask methodological questions and to examine ways of defining a problem. As important as the development of indicators and tool sets for evaluation is the philosophical task of examining major presuppositions of sustainability science and their justifications. The main approach aims at deep and comprehensive questioning in sustainability science: depth with respect to each feature, comprehensiveness as covering all major feature.

The first introduce a famous example to demonstrate that philosophy of science plays a role by costructuring the debate in sustainability science. The illustration is the ongoing dispute between weak and strong sustainability. In this paper will show how Popperian and Kuhnian philosophy of science costructure Neumayer’s (2010) classic contribution to the debate. In addition, the paper also demonstrate this to be an uptake of philosophy of science that leads to a conceptually problematic way of framing the debate. The paper then discusses how a critical re-examination of the Kuhnian and Popperian views can inform an analysis of the four key features mentioned above; and with it shed a different light on the debate between strong and weak sustainability. Philosophy of science so conceived is enabling and its attempt to pose the relevant questions is one contribution to a critical self-understanding for sustainability scientists. Rather than uncritically stating certain features, re-examine why and under what conditions features are justified, thereby improving the quality of the research. Finally, some tentative conclusions are draw for the emerging culture of sustainability science.


Discussion

The Difficult Heritage of Philosophy of Science

The relevance of philosophy of science for the way questions are asked in sustainability science can be demonstrated via the discussion of weak and strong sustainability. This key debate revolves around the question of whether natural capital, in particular natural resources and natural sinks, should be regarded in principle as substitutable (“if we run out of coal or oil it does not matter, for we will be able to substitute another energy source”). Weak sustainability (WS) in Neumayer’s definition requires “keeping total net investment [or total savings], suitably defined to encompass all relevant forms of capital, above zero.” Strong sustainability (SS) “calls for the preservation of the physical stock of those forms of natural capital that are regarded as nonsubstitutable (so-called critical natural capital).”

Neumayer states his goal as follows: “It will be argued here that both paradigms are non-falsifiable under scientific standards. Therefore, there can be no unambiguous support for either weak sustainability or strong sustainability.” At the end of his extended debate, he states: “the contest between WS and SS cannot be settled by theoretical inquiry. Nor can it be settled by empirical inquiry.” For the present purpose, we need to pay attention to the way Neumayer frames the question: Can the paradigms of WS or SS be falsified? This question (as Neumayer indicates via his references) points directly to two seminal contributors to philosophy of science: Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn. We will therefore very briefly introduce a few essential points pertaining to these respective philosophers so as to highlight the philosophical structure of Neumayer’s question.

Karl Popper and Scientific Method

Karl Popper (1963) influentially argued for the idea that science is distinguished by a scientific method consisting of an evolutionary process of conjectures and refutations. Popper’s work has been doubly influential: with respect to reinforcing the meta idea that science is distinguished by a method and his specific idea of falsification, which has been endorsed by numerous scientists, as well as suitably for a discussion of sustainability science a wider public.

The specification of this scientific method, Popper argues, allows science to be distinguished from pseudoscience (the so-called demarcation problem). Popper believed fields such as psychoanalysis or scientific socialism belong in the domain of pseudoscience because they do not follow the scientific method. Popper did not describe how the fabric of science works in its day-to-day routines. His philosophy of science is prescriptive, since it tells courageous scientists how they should proceed, a method, Popper believed, that would bring about scientific progress in the long run. On the one hand, scientists (should) advance bold and risky hypotheses and, on the other hand, they (should) attempt to derive empirical predictions from these conjectures and seek to refute them. This process of conjectures and refutations is (or should be) in Popper’s view at the core of the scientific method. A proposition is only scientific if it is possible to falsify it. Thus, if neither WS nor SS can be properly falsified, both concepts would not belong to the realm of scientific knowledge. If key approaches in sustainability science turned out to be nonfalsifiable pseudoscience, then this way of framing the problem could have serious consequences in general for sustainability science well beyond the focus of Neumayer’s claim.

Thomas Kuhn and Scientific Community

Kuhn’s (1996) paradigm account of science has been similar in scientific and popular influence in the twentieth century. Paradigms, in one key meaning of the definitive term in Kuhn’s work, offer a vision of what scientific work (“puzzle solving”) is worth performing in terms of theory articulation, empirical experimentation, and measurement, and which scientific work is secondary or even illegitimate. A paradigm in this sense includes generalizations along with preferred instruments and methods. It is furthermore structured by ontological commitments about elements and concepts and powered by the faith that nature can be fit into the box of the paradigm via puzzle solving (such as the often brilliant work of more elegant theory formulation and extension or more precise measurements).

Kuhn describes the social structure of science as one of particular scientific communities that are constituted by a shared faith in a paradigm. In his view, the scientific community is the supreme authority for validating and assessing scientific claims. Scientific claims are adopted and rejected according to criteria that stem from the paradigm itself. Students are initiated into the scientific community via textbooks, academic study programs, and laboratory training and they adopt basic axioms, concepts, and mindsets. Specialized conferences and peer-reviewed journals make it possible to assure the quality of research done within the community. In such ways, normal science becomes established.

The Problematic Structure of Neumayer’s Question

In light of Popper’s and Kuhn’s views on science, the philosophical structure of Neumayer’s question emerges. From a Popperian perspective, the structural process of science is one of conjecture and refutation with falsification as the selection, or rather elimination, criterion. From a Kuhnian perspective, scientific work mostly takes place in paradigm-based normal science. There will be scientific revolutions and new paradigms will emerge and take hold according to Kuhn, but the selection criterion for the new paradigm is not one of falsification. Moreover, falsification plays little role for (faith-based) normal science. So, there are some problem – either WS or SS really are genuine paradigms-but then we should not expect any attempts at falsification, rather “puzzle solving” (much of such puzzle solving is in evidence in the materials Neumayer cites); or WS and SS are falsifiable. In terms of these philosophies of science, Neumayer’s guiding question is indeed a difficult one, not only because of empirical problems (missing or incomplete data on resource availability, substitution elasticities, and so forth), but because conceptually the question; can paradigms be falsified? That paradigms cannot be falsified is a conceptual truth and Neumayer’s thesis is in this sense correct—but this of course is hardly what he meant to show.

Because the debate between WS and SS depends strongly on ethical arguments about our responsibility to future generations, about precautionary motives, and about our relationship to the natural environment, excluding normative propositions from method-based investigation amounts to a problematic, and more precisely, to an insufficiently comprehensive way of posing the question. This analysis of the structure of Neumayer’s argument demonstrates that philosophical questions play a role in the analysis of sustainability science and the self-understanding of sustainability scientists. One might abstract them away in the routines of individual projects, but one should not overlook them in basic debates. If sustainability science is to stand for a distinctive way of doing science, the philosophical dimensions of this mode need to be considered. Both Kuhn’s focus on the scientific community and Popper’s call for a scientific method continue to raise important questions. The point, however, is not to uncritically accept their philosophies, but to reconsider them in their respective contexts.

Sustainability Science

In the sustainability science, the four key features of sustainability science will be discuss in the coming section.

(1)Normativity

Sustainability science explicitly acknowledges a normative context, that of sustainability development (Clark and Dickinson, 2003). As “sustainability” and “sustainable development” are contested concept, many definitions and approaches have been argued for. However, it seems fair to say that the so-called Brundtland definition - “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” - defines a vague space of global intergenerational and intragenerational justice and development that, nevertheless, no specific or more rigorous definition can ignore (Jacobs, 1999). If so, any concept of sustainability must clarify notions and theories of justice with respect to development.

(2)Urgency

A commitment to the fulfillment of human needs in a world where even the basic requirements of a large part of the human population are often not met implies a dimension of urgency (Hua, 2016c). How can science and technology help move society toward a more sustainable future (Clark & Dickinson, 2003)? There is an ethical supposition in claims of urgency: as moral persons, we are not neutral to whether a specific problem might be addressed now, in some decades, or even in centuries. Andrew Wiles and Richard Taylor discover that in the intermediary time those interested simply had to wait and, or puzzle. The patience of the puzzle solver is a virtue. In puzzle-solving science, one might trust that all major problems will be solved in the longer run and that science will, in the end, discover some ultimate truth (Peirce’s “final opinion”) about how the universe is. Meanwhile, down on earth, there is suffering, injustice, and devastation of the biosphere. The puzzle-solving scientific attitude can abstract away from such pressing concerns, transforming them into private opinions a scientist may (or may not) hold. However, in the case of sustainability science these moral concerns are intrinsic (Hua & Marsuki, 2015). Those whose needs are to be met may simply no longer be alive in the long run. There is still another aspect of urgency: in the case of climate change the risks associated with waiting for better science might simply be judged too high. A purely scientific attitude can become a source of risk in sustainability science.

The context of discovery is distinct from the context of justification. According to this view, it is the reasoning for a scientific claim that counts, not its timing. We say that a scientific claim is valid if it can be shown to be a condition of the world, according to a specific observation or laboratory method that verifies or confirms the claim (this method usually involves a specific community structure for confirmation and testimony of experiments and observations). Such conditions of the world can have a temporal reference. For example, the passenger pigeon—once an abundant species in North America—is supposed to have become extinct in the early twentieth century. A scientific claim (or entire set of claims) can involve a reference to a specific time or temporal dynamic (such as the once abundant passenger pigeon becoming extinct). However, such temporal references are irrelevant with respect to the validity of the scientific claims.

Many events and temporal dynamics are relevant within sustainability science. “Urgency” is determined by temporal considerations (how much time do we have?) as well as ethical stakes (how important is the event/dynamic?). For example, predictions and forecasts regarding single events and dynamics of stocks are frequently related to human options. If global temperature is likely to increase by two degrees within the next generation, this can affect environmental security (for example, shelter due to increased risks of floods). Accordingly, there can be questions of mitigation (fight temperature increase) and adaptation (improve shelter). As the adaptation example shows, the relevance of scientific claims is not dependent on the human capacity to influence the occurrence of an event or the pattern of a dynamic. In any case, sustainability science is interested in the dynamics of specific stocks and flows over time. These dynamics (Aristotles’ kinesis) are perceived from the normative perspective: in sustainability science one must, ceteris paribus, engage oneself against stocks of pollutants, declining stocks of resources, increasing stocks of greenhouse gases, and so forth. As in the case of atmospheric greenhouse gases, the dynamics of increase give reason to claim that mitigation is urgent. If a lake is close to collapse or a species is near extinction, action is urgent. Many stocks are goods that are components of the overall fair bequest package we owe to future generations. If so, sustainability science must schedule the relationship between stocks and time. A normative approach to the kinetics of stocks is required.

The quality of sustainability science is codependent on an explicit way of dealing with urgency: How do stocks change over time? What are the temporal windows? How can long-term objectives be combined prudently with first steps and a transition period? In our view, these questions do not necessitate a departure from sound scientific standards, but augment them. The pathos of urgency as such clearly does not make any claim a scientific one. Scenarios being presented in a context of urgency mustin principle be open to disciplinary scrutiny and critique. Even the claims of urgency themselves must be open for refutation. What is required is the explicit contextualization of scientific claims (and practices) in a temporal framing of dynamics and events. Whether a scientific claim is considered as evidence and reason for action is ultimately an ethical question. (This establishes a double link to the inclusion of nonscientists: Who decides on ethical stakes? Who has knowledge of and influence on windows of opportunity for action?).

These questions also need to be asked for the weak versus strong sustainability debate. Consider the example of energy substitution, such as the substitution of nonrenewable oil with renewable solar energy that Neumeyer discusses. There are optimistic scenarios that suggest substitution is possible and there are pessimistic scenarios that put the possibility of substitution into doubt. As Neumeyer notes, “Which of the two projections will be closer to reality we do not know.” Again, we need to pay attention to the formulation of the question. No doubt, there are energy optimists and energy pessimists, but what, in this context, are the meaning of “closer to reality?” The discussion above suggests that for sustainability evaluation of these scenarios should have to ask whose needs are likely to be affected and how and when they will be affected (with respect to the question of substituting oil with solar power). With regard to urgency, WS would likely rely on economic wisdom about how depreciation of a resource motivates the search for substitutes, while SS would recommend political measures to speed up such substitution. In such matters, there is no such thing as empirical “closeness to reality.” “Closeness to reality,”, requires an account of these questions of needs and urgency without which a dimension of sustainability science is missing.

(3) Inclusion of nonscientists

Sustainability science typically endorses a commitment to the inclusion of nonscientists in the process of research itself. Funding bodies might even require the satisfaction of this condition. As Kates et al. (2001) observe, “Combining different ways of knowing and learning will permit different social actors to work in concert, even with much uncertainty and limited information.” Sustainability science thus supposes that nonscientists can contribute to projects in the field in ways that the scientists involved cannot substitute for.

An important contribution, explicitly informed by philosophy of science, is the post-normal science proposed by Silvio Funtowicz, Jerome Ravetz, and others (Funtowicz & Ravetz, 1991; 1993; van der Sluijs & Funtowicz, 2008). This approach specifically focuses on the inclusion of nonscientists (as a matter of extended peer review). This context of sustainability science calls for a revision of the organization of science; the scientific community, in the context of sustainability issues, must open itself to extended peer review and the extended facts it might offer. However, there is also a separate series of arguments for the inclusion of nonscientists in sustainability science. We discuss first five epistemological, then three political, and finally one ethical argument for the inclusion of nonscientists in project-based sustainability science.

(a) Local Knowledge: The inclusion of nonscientists opens sustainability science to local knowledge and tacit knowledge considerations. Ravetz & Funtowicz (1991) assert that “knowledge of local conditions may not merely shape the policy problem, it can also determine which data is strong and relevant” (see also Renn, 2008). Thus, the inclusion of nonscientists might be relevant for both problem formulation and for contextual knowledge application. Local knowledge is found in laypersons and it may also be stored in literature that does not count as scientific. According to contemporary standards of peer-reviewed journals, such literature is very often “dark grey.” Local knowledge often comes in “thick” narratives that are not “stored” in the same way as disciplinary knowledge.

(b) Bias: Funtowicz & Ravetz (1991) contend that “experts lack practical knowledge and have their own forms of bias.” Normal science involves a process of initiation; assumptions have to be internalized, methods learned—in short, a paradigmatic view acquired. The result is a certain way of seeing the world; we see evidence of this, when, for example, laypersons strongly react to the economists’ point of view. Because biases need to be unnoticed to be biases, the antidote against biases tends to come from outside. The inclusion of nonscientists can serve as an antidote against specialization and can help expose the limits of science. For instance, scientists are often ignorant about history, while history plays an important role for local people.

(c) Self-criticism and normal science: Precisely because academic science has a strong institutional character that involves hierarchies, careers, and hence people’s life prospects, internal criticism may be difficult or even rare (Betz, 2006). The outside perspectives not so constrained can be helpful in engaging in such criticism. Laypersons do not have blind faith in science and often challenge scientific claims. In this way, the scientific virtue of a critical attitude is turned against science from the outside.

(d) Alertness: Normal science can be compared to a large tanker. It is the tanker of science at sea and it is difficult to change its course once it has picked up speed. Research programs involve significant human and monetary investments and paradigm work on measuring and theory articulation is likely to have a long-term perspective. As a result, scientists as a community may have difficulty being alert to novel challenges that do not easily fit into their prevailing theoretical outlook. Nonscientists are not so constrained; hence, they can serve the function of communicating novel issues, thereby possibly making the ship of science more responsive.

(e) Conjectures: Conjectures require imagination. Imagination is, like prudence or even wisdom, not only found among scientists. The inclusion of nonscientists may open the scientific communities to new conjectures: wild ideas, naïve questions, and unexpected observations that the scientific community has the resources to state rigorously, refine, or refute.

(f) Care and Concern: Funtowicz & Ravetz (1991) write that “those whose lives and livelihood depend on solutions of the problems will have a keen awareness of how general principles are realized in their ‘back yards.’” Science that aims to have a practical influence must be especially cautious with respect to the real-world impacts it may have. To the extent that people most affected by environmental issues are not generally scientists, the care argument is sociologically plausible: those most affected are likely to care the most, and hence care that the policy instrument (or similar) is appropriate. In medicine, it is the patient who must live with the consequences of a physician’s recommendation for surgery (Hua, 2016b). Because of this, the ultimate decision is up to her (informed consent). In similar ways, local stakeholders have to cope with the consequences of projects designed by scientific experts.

(g) Timing: If sustainability science seeks to contribute to practical problem solving, then generally timing will be one component of successful science. For example, if a scientific report, however brilliant, misses the window of opportunity provided by an election cycle, it might be practically useless. Here, too, the inclusion of nonscientists may offer insight. Such inclusion also gives scientists a better understanding of the affected people’s perception of the pressure and urgency of a given problem (for example, a problem could be less urgent for local people than the scientists believe.)

(h) Power: Nonscientists may not only offer insight, but they can also generate the power to help advance a proposal resulting from sustainability science. Nonscientists who are informed and have the necessary influence can help effectively communicate or even implement a policy proposal (Bergman, 2008).

(i) Normativity: A normative science needs to take care with respect to the social values it seeks to achieve or promote. However, as Funtowicz & Ravetz (1991) note, values are in dispute. Precisely for this reason, it seems important to make this dispute public and not to leave science with the decision of which values to prioritize (Renn, 2008). The inclusion of nonscientists can contribute to this end. Scientists as such are not experts in value judgments. Ethicists may offer skills for the investigation of normative intuitions and their implications, historians may offer insight into the contexts of such intuitions, and so forth. However, here, too, bias and limited self criticism can pertain. Scientists should not have ultimate authority in moral matters.

These various arguments partly complement one another and may also be in many contexts quasi-independent. It is conceivable that in a context concerning basic needs, the value dimension is trivial and uncontroversial. This does not mean that there is no value dimension in this context, but only that it may justifiably fade into the background as far as the possible inclusion of nonscientists is concerned. More generally, it seems that some set of these arguments ought to be made explicit for the specific context of the sustainability project at hand. Put differently, for each sustainability science research project that includes nonscientists, the various epistemological, political, and normative relationships between the scientists and nonscientists ought in principle be made explicit.

The establishment of sustainability science has meant that some funders mandate the participation of nonscientists. In some cases, inclusion does not need to be justified, but becomes an expectation or simply a dogma of sustainability science. However, one can endorse the nine reasons just mentioned and remain critical of dogmatic ways to perform participation for the sake of funding requirements. We may face such dogma if participation and inclusion seem to be mere add-ons to a given project, are disconnected to the scientific objectives, or do not rely on a sound concept. Wolfgang Zierhofer & Paul Burger (2007) have a valid point when they question whether the inclusion of nonscientists in trans-disciplinary research always serves epistemic ends. They define trans-disciplinary research formally by interdisciplinary and participation (of nonscientists), and they view problem-oriented research as its main epistemic end. Problem-oriented research in their understanding aims to reduce knowledge gaps that “hinder some stakeholders or institution to pursue certain actions.” Based on a survey of sixteen trans-disciplinary research projects, they found that few projects really investigate goals or knowledge objectives. They conclude that trans-disciplinary research should not be regarded as a distinct mode of knowledge production. Instead, it “should be considered rather a class of epistemically and methodologically heterogeneous research activities which are only formally unified by the two general properties ‘interdisciplinary’ and ‘participatory.’”

Skepticism as to the inclusion of nonscientists is reasonable in view of participation as dogma. However, Zierhofer & Burger’s (2007) conclusion that trans-disciplinary research is “not a distinct mode of knowledge production” does not logically follow from the observation of a sample of empirical examples. Moreover, their conclusion seems to be the consequence of a formal description of trans-disciplinary research that does not specify a domain of investigation, which could be numbers as in mathematics, life as in biology, the commitment to sustainability as in sustainability science, and so forth. These domains of investigation stand for distinct epistemic ends (What is number? What is life? What is sustainability?). Once we have stated these domains, we can ask whether trans-disciplinary research contributes to the respective ends. For example, sustainability science focuses on the promotion of normative sustainability goals and to this end on an improved understanding of nature-society relations. The inclusion of nonscientists can serve this end (see the list of arguments above). Therefore, trans-disciplinary research in conjunction with a domain of investigation does seem to yield distinct modes of knowledge production.

(4) Interrelation of environment and society

Sustainability science seeks to “understand the fundamental character of interactions between nature and society” (Kates et al. 2001; see also Renn, 2008), to find joint ways in which natural and social scientists can improve the understanding of environment-society relations. Typical tools for such attempts are scenario techniques that depend on information and causal mechanisms from natural and social sciences. Another example might be coupled models that shed light on the interactions between human and natural systems. In the subsequent sections, the discussion on the questions raised by these features and their contribution to the quality of sustainability science.

Sustainability science, it will be recalled, seeks to understand the “interactions between nature and society,” and it is in principle plausible that it needs to draw on the knowledge of both natural and social scientists, as well as the humanities and vocational disciplines (such as engineering, law, and medicine) to advance this understanding. As a minimum question of quality, the various scientists working on the respective issue should be included (Jahn, 2008). For example, research on a problem pertaining to floods requires hydrological (and possibly climatological) knowledge, but also political knowledge regarding the societal actors and their coalitions.

The debate of weak versus strong sustainability can serve as an instructive illustration of this feature of sustainability science. Both paradigms presuppose some ideas of how humans and natural systems are related. So, there will be three observations with respect to nature-society relationships:

1. The definitions of weak sustainability, strong sustainability (see the above explanation), and natural capital and their terminology originate in economic thought about investments, substitutes, complements, capital, and so forth. Thus, it is already a challenge to translate the weak versus strong debate into a genuine debate of social and natural science.

2. The debate issues from another debate between much wider paradigms: those of neoclassical economics and ecological economics. Roughly put, the first paradigm conceives of the economy as an autonomous entity in which economic growth can be examined and explained without reference to exogenous variables. Endogenous growth is in principle unlimited. The second paradigm conceives of the economy as a subset of the biosphere and claims that economic growth cannot be explained without reference to the enveloping biophysical system that also limits economic growth. The anomaly in the Kuhnian sense is the problem of substitution (the old neoclassical paradigm is pushed to defend the increasingly contested claim that natural resources and services are substitutable). Prima facie, the paradigm of ecological economists necessitates nature-society integration due to its image of the economy as a subset of the biosphere. Its paradigmatic image is one that fits well with respect to sustainability science, whereas the same cannot be said, at least at first sight, with respect to neoclassical economics.

3. Precisely because the debate is in the first place one between economic paradigms, we need to pay attention to the structure of the argument and to the burden of proof. The following structure in Neumayer’s discussion of the debate, he subjects the four premises of weak sustainability to the logical and empirical objections of opponents, concluding that SS proponents cannot decisively refute WS because their objections are inconclusive or logically flawed. But there is no complementary examination of the premises of strong sustainability. In short, Neumayer does not ask whether proponents of WS have good arguments to put the SS premises into doubt. Therefore, the burden of proof is not applied in an even-handed manner.

We submit that the normative considerations, along with the observation that this very debate has a disciplinary bias (it is in the first place posited as an economic debate, in which ecologists do not really have a say), suggest a reasonable argument in favor of strong sustainability. The evidence is that ecologists clearly tend toward the non-substitution view (e.g., MEA, 2005). Indeed, some of them might not accept the terms of the debate as meaningful to begin with. How could life-supporting ecosystems possibly be substitutable?


Conclusion

As a conclusion, this paper explores the way in which philosophy of science constructs a key debate in sustainability science, showing how philosophy of science can thereby become a problematic heritage. There also argued that a critical examination of this heritage points the way to an enabling, critical re-examination of the way sustainability science understands itself. The quality of sustainability science is in the view of a matter of constantly stating and re-examining the reasons for the inclusion of nonscientists, the normative issues at stake (and in conflict), the temporal relation of the research to the stakes at hand, and finally, the cooperation of the relevant natural and social sciences based on joint problem formulation. Keeping in view the debate of weak versus strong sustainability throughout our discussion of these key features, the paper conclude that comprehensive questioning supports strong sustainability.


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Ecology and sustainability issues in religious: An analysis

Abstract

Science, technology and sustainability article try to tell the situation that happen in today routine life. This article explains on how does Islamic perspective in handle and solving the issue arises in environment and ecology. The article starts by giving definition on the world view from the glass of Islamic and western doctrine and understanding on environment. Next the article explains on why does human has the responsibility on governs the nature and should not make no harm upon the environment. Environmental ethic that the western civilization practices reflects the action that the western people do when dealing with the environment. Islamic perspective seems to be the best alternative in dealing and helping the nature to heal from the corruption that it faced. In conclusion the article hopes that, Islamic approach for environment issue method can be one of the choice in future in order to settle or drafting the policy.

Keywords: Environment, Ethics, Ecology, Islamic Perspective

Citation of Article:
Hua, A.K., & Ping, O.W. (2016). Ecology and sustainability issues in religious: An analysis. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research, 2(2), 1-5.


Introduction

Global development is increasingly rampant for the mere betterment of human living. There are two pathways in which this development is executed which are through the Western and Islamic perspectives. The West achieves development through the separation of values and material. The western pattern of development starts by creating and maximizing production and demand. Meanwhile, Islamic development gives the definition of value cooperation between intrinsic and extrinsic Islamic development which can be measured. This started during the golden age and lasted for more than 700 years. During this age, there was no record of any environmental crisis that occurred. During the golden age, Islamic civilization established its glory by the pillar that Islamic religion gave. This created a more natural relation between human and environment as humans are not impartial to nature. Allah gave humans the responsibility to not only develop the environment but to make no harm to it. The Western civilization has not thrived nearly as long as the Islamic civilization, yet the extent of damages which resulted from the West’s actions way supersede that weight of time. Hence, it will probably need to take more than a million years for earth to recover from it.

Environmental crisis is a pressing issue in the present day and it has to date happen mainly due to nations’ urge to claim the status of developed country. This is apparent even in the Islamic world today as one sees blatant signs of the environmental crisis in nearly every country from the air pollution in Cairo and Tehran to the erosions of the hills of Yemen to the deforestation of many areas of Malaysia. Environmental problems seem to be present everywhere especially in urban centres and also in many parts of the countryside to a degree that one cannot distinguish the Islamic world from most other areas of the globe as far as acute environmental problems are concerned. Superficially, the Islamic view of nature could not have been different from that of the modern West which first thrust the environment crisis upon the whole of mankind. However truthfully, the Islamic view of the environment is very different from what has been prevalent in the West during the past few centuries. If that view has now become partly hidden, it is because 3 of the onslaught of Western civilization since the 18th century and the destruction of much of the Islamic civilization, due to both external and internal factors, although the Islamic religion itself has continued to flourish and remains strong. Some of the quotes depict the Islamic view of the relations between humans and nature, as cited from the Hadith and Qur’an.

“The world is green and beautiful and God has appointed you as His stewards over it. He sees how you acquit yourselves.” (Muslim)

“Whoever plants a tree and looks after it with care, until it matures and becomes productive, will be rewarded in the Hereafter.” (Bukhari and Muslim)

“If anyone plants a tree or sows a field and men, beasts, or birds eat from it, he should consider it as a charity on his part.” (Imam Ahmad, Musnad)

“My Lord is He who spread out for you the earth like a carpet; and made paths therein for you, and sent down water from the clouds. Then, thereby, we have produced diverse pairs of plants, each distinct from the other.” (Qur’an 20:53)

The Ecology and Environmental Ethics
Ecology by western definition is the scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment. Ecosystems on the other hand are composed of organisms (plants, animals and microbes), the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment (air, water and mineral soil), dynamically interacting as a system. The ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production (food, fuel, fiber and medicine), the regulation of climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion control, flood protection and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value. Biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services. On the contrary, the Islamic perspective sees the whole realm of nature as the revelation of the will of God. It is evident from the following verses of the Holy Qur’an that the divine will is manifested in the creation of heavens and of the earth, the alternation of day and night, and in the variety of plants and animals. “Sees thou not that to Allah bow down in worship all things that are in the heavens and on earth - the sun, the moon, the stars; the hills, the trees, the animals; and a great number among mankind? ” (Quran 22:18) There is intrinsic goodness, beauty, harmony, and orderliness in the creation. Everything in it including the sun, the moon, the stars have been created for the benefit of man. The Universe was created with a purpose, as the requisite environment in which man might fulfill the divine trust which he had accepted. Islam also teaches humans that all creatures of God, whether it is the tiny ant or the huge lion, serve a certain purpose in the larger scheme of God’s world: “There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, or a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you (Quran 6:38) In simpler terms, this shows the role of humans as the appointed steward of the environment created by God.

Man: Trustee and Vicegerent
One is the Islamic belief is that everything within human possession and which their conveniently call their property is not only provided by God but ultimately belong to Him. On this belief, human possessions are merely entrusted to them, and must be preserved and delivered back to God in the best manner possible, as cited in the following verse of the Qur’an.

“Believe in Allah and His messenger, and spend of that whereof He hath made you trustees; and such of you as believe and spend (aright), theirs will be a great reward.”(Quran 57:7)

The importance here lies in the belief that humans are mere trustees of the wealth in their possession. Thus, Muslims will naturally extend this belief with regards to all the natural resources within their domain. This idea of trust is also known as the concept of vicegerency. In the Qur’an, God says:

“Then we appointed you viceroys in the earth after them, that we might see how ye behave” (Quran  10:14) The behavior of those who cause corruption on earth is well noted:

“And when he turned away (from thee) his effort in the land is to make mischief therein and to destroy the crops and the cattle; and Allah loved not mischief” (Quran 2:205).

According 5 to the Qur’an, God made well everything he has created and we are commanded to keep it that way:

“Do no mischief on the earth, after it hath been set in order” (Qur’an 7:56).

Besides that, Muslims also believe that there are three important criterions that govern the human actions which are aql, ability to learn and intuition. God created human beings with these abilities to enable them to make right and just judgments in their decision making which will eventually be reflected in the consequences of their actions whether good or bad. Taking into context of our study, this ability can help human to administrate the environment with justice with guides from Qur’an and Hadith. From here, it is evident that human actions have a volatile effect on the environment and just like everything else; every course of action has its consequence. Hence, extra efforts must be taken to safeguard the environment from harm as environmental crises are merely a starting point for greater a global predicament. An unhealthy environment will lead to numerous negative impacts to humankind. Some examples, such as deforestation, will lead to insufficiency in fresh water supply and subsequently global heat imbalance leading to greenhouse effects for instance. The clearing of trees in the forest will also cause top soil erosion on the earth’s surface. These top soil is rich with nutrient that vegetation or crop need to bear fruit, thus such damage would only result in food security issues, just to name a few.

Environmental Issues
In view of the environmental crisis highlighted due to the actions of mankind in this era of globalization, several occurring environmental issues will be discussed. It has been mentioned earlier that these environmental problems arise due to the rapid industrialization of the Western civilization since their early years and this has loomed ever since plaguing even the Islamic worlds which were role models of a balance relation between human and nature. Hence, we will look into these environmental issues in detail with regards to the Islamic teachings. The discussion on the issues will be deliberated at the discussion part.

1 Water Pollution
Water is an essence of live. Plants, animals and man all depend on water for their existence and for the continuation of their lives. The Muslims believe that God has made water the basis and origin of life. God says in the Qur’an “We made from water every living thing,” (Qur’an 15:19) and also “Verily…in the rain that God sends down from heaven, thereby giving life to the earth after its death…” (Qur’an 24:41) God has called on man to appreciate the value of water an essential element of live. In addition, water has another vital function in terms of socio-religious which is the purification of the body and clothing from all dirt, impurities and defilement so that man may encounter God clean and pure. God has said in the Glorious Qur’an “And he caused rain to descend on you from heaven to cleanse you herewith.” (Muslim; Abu Sa’id al-Khudri).

Water is also a determinant between the rich and poor. There is more water in the Northern hemisphere of globe than there is in the Southern Hemisphere. The range of use varies from up to 20, 000 liters per capita a year in the United States of America to less than 500 liters in some developing countries.

However, the waters of almost all the rivers in the world, especially those in developing countries, have become polluted now. Hence, most rural communities are exposed to unsafe water. Since many pollutants have no distinctive color or smell, it is not easy for an average person to judge from the look of water whether or not it is safe. In light of these facts, plus the fact that our earth is the only planet in the universe known so far to contain water, it is not surprising that the Qur’an laid so much emphasis on the importance of water as seen in the following verses:

“God created every animal out of water: of them there are some that creep on their bellies; others that walk on two legs; and others on four.” (Qur’an 24:45)

“It is he who has given the free flow to two kinds of water – the one thirst-quenching and sweet and the other salt and bitter. Yet, He had set an insuperable barrier between their intrinsic qualities which cannot be changed. It is He who created man out of the very water and then established his relationship of kin and wedlock.” (Qur’an 25:53, 54)

2. Deforestation
Trees cover a third of our earth. They regulate climate, protect water supplies, and nurture millions of species of animals. They soak up carbon monoxide and other gases and, therefore, maintain a natural balance in the world’s temperature and climate. Half of our medicines are derived from plants. By destroying the rainforest, we will never know what useful plants we may have lost. Forests are also being cut for timber or to provide extra land for cultivation. Large areas are being cleared to be turned into pastures for cattle in order to export their meat to meet the demand of other countries. It is only the trunks of trees that can be used as timber while their twigs and debris are left to rot, releasing carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. This situation became so desperate that the United Nations Environment Program, working closely with other United Nations agencies and international environmental organizations, called for 8 billion dollars to be spent on the Tropical Forestry Plan during the five years ending 1991.

The Islamic legislation on the preservation of trees and plants at the time laid down some fourteen centuries ago, covers not only forests but also wildlife. According to these laws, certain area, called harimor hima, are set aside and development or cultivation is prohibited. This code of ecological legislation was based on numerous verses of the Qur’an and sayings of the Holy Prophet Muhammad. According to Tabari, an exegesis of Qur’an, the holy book cites “Do not cut down trees and do not kill animals except for food (in the enemy territory).” In later years, Muslim law-makers based the Islamic legal system on such decrees and formulated similar laws covering the conservation of forests, over-grazing, water resources, animal rights etc. They even formulated laws hundreds of years ago in checking over-population in cities, a problem which has now become a major cause of ecological disaster throughout the world. For example in Africa alone, the number of people coming to live in cities is growing at the rate of 4 percent a year. It is estimated that between 1980 and 2000, 200 million more people will have moved into cities.

3. Animal Extinction
Animals are a vital living resource of enormous benefit, without which neither man nor other species could survive. God has not made any of His creatures worthless: every single form of life is the product of a special and intricate development by God, and warrants special respect. As a living genetic resource, each species and variety is unique and irreplaceable. Animals provide sustenance for plants, for one another, and for man. Their dung and their bodies enrich the soil and the seas. They contribute to the atmosphere by respiration and by their movements and migrations contribute to the distribution of plants. They provide food for one another and provide mankind with leather, hair and wool, medicines and perfumes and means of conveyance, as well as meat, milk and honey.

Hence, animals are accorded special regard in Islam for their highly developed senses and perceptions and their social interrelationships for God consider them living societies exactly like mankind. God has declared in the Glorious Qur’an, “There is not an animal on the earth, nor any being that wings its flight, but is people like unto you.” (Qur’an 6:38) The absolute destruction of any species of animal or plant by man can in no way be justified; nor should any be harvested at a rate in excess of its natural regeneration. This applies to hunting and fishing, and all other utilization of living resources. It is essential that the genetic diversity of living beings be preserved, both for their own sake and for the good of mankind and all other creatures.

It is not only in the name of human need for food that animals are killed, but they are also killed needlessly for trinkets and fancy goods. The carriage of animals such as elephants, rhinos, whales, crocodiles, seals, and numerous others has led to the near extinction of many such species. Millions of animals are tortured and killed under the pretext of scientific experiment, although most of these are experiments for commercial enterprises for example, the supply of cosmetics for which alternatives are readily available.

Over the years, man has forgotten their responsibilities as God’s steward on earth. Man rear animals in barbaric ways supposedly to improve the quality of their meat or encourage animals to fight with each other or with humans in the name of sport. Bullfights, the chase, badger baiting and falconry are considered legitimate sports. Animals are generally held in contempt by humans, largely because they are considered to be dumb. Humans behave towards them as thought they had no feelings, and often degrade them or treat them badly. The Qur’an and Hadith remind us that they are communities like the human community, loved and created equally by God as mention in the Qur’an,

“There is not an animal on earth, nor a bird that flies on its wings, but they are communities like you…”  (Qur’an 6:38) and Hadith, “All creatures are like a family (ayal) of God: and He loves the most those who are the most beneficent to His family.” (Shu’ab al-Imam)

and are as much a symbol of God’s power of creation as human beings are. Hence, it is mention in the following verse of the Hadith that,

“A good deed done to a beast is as good as doing good to a human being; while an act of cruelty to a beast is as bad as an act of cruelty to a human being.” (Mishkat al-Masabih).


Discussions

Science advancement in the world nowadays does not only play major role in the ecology but also impact directly and indirectly Muslims across the globe. Some of the advancement give benefit to the human being but give negative impact to the ecology. As a new philosophy of understanding the environment in the West emerges, the introduction of the idea of environmental ethics seems to be the answer for the issues arises concerning the environment. This idea draws deeply onto the understanding of nature and creation as every culture in this world has its own worldviews or paradigm. According to Nicholas (2000) [2] there are eco-centric and human-centric categories on handling and understanding this environmental ethic. The Ecocentric School of account believes that nature or environment does not have value economically just because it benefits human but more than that. It believes that the value lay on the intrinsic element of the natural. On the other hand, the human-centric school of account believe that the environment is valued if it gives benefits to the human being. Though, both school of thoughts keep human impartial from the environment. Even though eco-centric give more emphasis on the environment but still it does not see human being a part of the whole ecosystem. These schools of account still make human being masters of the environment and nature as an instrument or an entity valued only by its contribution to human interest.

Environmental ethics seem to be the best solution for the Westerners, but seem to provide no solution for the occurring problems. This school of thoughts differs from the Islamic teaching as there are no separations between human and nature in Islam as both are creations of God. Islam instils the trust to admin the environment as human have the capability to bow down to God and understand the status of strewed. Understanding both approach western and Islamic, it is fair to say that the Islamic approach has a more holistic approach in tackling the issues regarding to environment. The world should give chance to the Muslim to execute their teaching and evaluate the outcome.

In handling the issues, the Muslims should strengthen the understanding of environment to the world and show how Islamic approach is more significant and more environmental friendly. The Fatwa Council meet to address these issues and come up with protocol or check list so that the Muslim in this world can help to preserve the natural ecosystem. This council is crucial as most of the discovery in this world come from the western doctrine understanding of science and environment. It is the time where Muslim should play a more active role as much as reactive role. Muslim must enquire the needed knowledge to handle these issues. For example, Malaysia as a country where Islam is the official religion have to take part on making a bold movement in combating the environmental issues using Islamic teaching and protocol. The move that the country of Malaysia make and used will be the role model of the Islamic approach. Others will evaluate the actions of Malaysians and follow suit. This practise will then be more effectively implemented.

Let’s look at the current situation in Malaysia, the Klang River is been polluted many years due to the action by the community who live around the area make their life suffer as the polluted river bring many other undesired attribute. Flash flood and shortage of clean water just to name a few of the phenomenon that we observe in this new decades.

In Islam, the context of sustainability rest upon the moulding of a human being. Sustainability should also start from the awareness of the environment and its distress. Almost all major religions enshrine a few scriptural statements on the conservation of Nature. There is no religion in this world that allows the destruction of environment. On the basis of Allah’s guidance in Qur’an, Muslim legal scholars have defined the ultimate objective of the Shari’ah as the universal common good of all created beings, both in this life and in the life after death. Working for the good of all creation is the only way that one can truly serve Allah. The following sayings of the Prophet Muhammad express the profound religious and ethical value of bringing new life to the land: “Whoever brings dead land to life, for him is a reward in it, and whatever any creature seeking food eats of it shall be reckoned as charity from him.” (Mishkat al Masabih) and “There is no Muslim who plants a tree or sows a field, and a human, bird oranimal eats from it, but it shall be reckoned as charity from him.” (Mishkat al- Masabih)

It is recorded that the Prophet Muhammad prohibited the cutting of any tree in the desert which provided valuable shade or sustenance either for humans or animals, and that he established protected zones around Makkah, al Madinah and al Ta’if, within which he forbade the cutting of native trees and the hunting of wildlife. The attitude of the Shari’ah towards the use and development of the earth’s resources was accurately summed up by the Prophet’s follower and cousin,’ Ali ibnAbi- Talib, who said to a man who had dug canals and reclaimed abandoned land: “Partake of it with joy, so long as you are a benefactor, not a corruptor, a cultivator, not a destroyer.” (Yahyaibn Adam)

The rights to benefit from nature are connected to obligation and maintenance or preservation of the resource. The essential legitimate rule set up by the Prophet Muhammad is that "The benefit of a thing is in return for the liability attached to it.” [Sahih Al-Bukhari,]. A lot of environmental destruction is caused by people's lack of knowledge of what their Creator demands of them. People today need to be forced to understand that the conservation of the natural environment is a religious responsibility required by the almighty. Allah has stated: “And do good as Allah has been good to you. And do not seek to cause corruption in the earth. Allah does not love the corrupters”. [Holy Qur’an -Al Qasas 28:77].

As Masri (1992) wisely notes “the ecological problems we are facing today arise from the fact that humans have started using very scarce resources wastefully and in such a way that we are not giving nature a chance to reproduce the things we are taking out of it”. Islam maintains that God is the absolute creator and sustainer of the universe and the resources within, all elements of nature and the associated resource. Allah said “nay, we let them and their forebears enjoy the good things of life, until they outlive their prosperity. Can they not see that we visit the land under their control and gradually curtail its boundaries all around them? Is it, then, they who will prevail?” [Holy Quran-Anbiyaa 21:44]. Islam advocates, as Llewellyn (1984, as cited in Akhtar 1996:59) notes, that “environmental disruption of any kind must be avoided for two reasons. First, it is an ethical command of Islamic jurisprudence and law and second, it is essential for protecting the public interest and universal common good of all mankind”.

The concerns today being portrayed are not new readings or interpretations of Islam but a muchneeded expression and acknowledgement of the connection involving mankind and nature, and accountability to the almighty, which have always been found within Islam (El-Naggar (2007). As most of the people become industrial, people have become rapidly disconnected from the natural community. Numerous Muslims these days adore Mother Nature but do not understand much regarding it. Practically they need to be made conscious of what is going on, however most importantly they need to rediscover the teachings that had been contained in their religious beliefs, or way of life, right from the start originating mainly in the key source for Muslims, the Qur’an. This relationship is based on teachings within the Qur’an scripture, conserved precisely both in oral, memorized, type as well as in book form for more than fourteen centuries, such as in the following verse: "It is He who has made you His Guardians of the Earth. He has raised you in ranks, some above others, that He may try you in the gifts He has given you. For your Lord is quick in punishment, yet He is indeed Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful." [Holy Quran – An ‘am 6:165]. This verse and others make it obvious to Muslims that the world and all its benefits, whatever part each individual is given power over, is an evaluation for them, a trust from the almighty, and their obligation is to look after it, as stated by God’s laws and regulations. They're going to be held accountable to God for this, and disciplined or compensated depending on how good they fulfilled their responsibilities as Guardians or trustees serving God. When they make errors, nevertheless, they need merely reverse to God, seeking forgiveness and trying to make amends, and they will be mercifully pardoned by him and permitted another opportunity to demonstrate their trustworthiness.


Conclusion

The Holy Qur’an and the Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad are the basic sources which may lead us to develop an Islamic perspective regarding the ecological crisis. Islamic teachings are fundamental in re-establishing the basic principles of environmental conservation, especially in the Islamic world today. God has created for us the earth in which we dwell and resources that will sustain us and has appointed us ‘khalifahs’ or vicegerents to take up the responsibility of guarding nature and to protect it from harm. Hence, religion is a crucial binder of humankind to their conscience and awareness of their every action towards nature. Without with, humans will never know when to stop or continue to be blinded by only greed and selfishness, bearing in mind only the aspects of which benefits them as opposed to the destruction to the very environment which provides for us and sustains us.


References

1. Agwan AR. Islam and the Environment, 1997.

2. Nicholas B. The ethical issues of genetic modification. Background paper for the report of the Royal commission on Genetic Modification, New Zealand, 2000. Available:
www.gmcommission.govt.nz/publications/Ethics_Barbara_Nicholas.pdf

Science, Technology And Innovation Based Religious: An Analysis

Abstract

Education plays important role in developing country especially science education. Last few centuries ago, Islamic countries fall behind in science and technology compared to Western countries although in the previous time Islamic country renowned as a nation that produce lots of new scientific discoveries and lots of countries had submitted to Islamic nations during the Golden Age time. Generally, science education can develop a country and economy for a better life. This article will discuss about the problem that Islamic countries faced, which contribute to science education that fall behind among Islamic countries and tried to overcome with solving the problems.

Keywords: Science education, fall behind, Islamic country, scientific discoveries, economy

Citation of Article:
Hua, A.K. (2016). Science, Technology and Innovation Based Religious: An Analysis. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 5(2), 21-24.


Introduction

“Science”, can be defined as knowledge that translated from the Latin word, ‘Scientia’ (Science Project Official Portal, 2015). According to Cambridge Dictionary Online, science is “knowledge from the careful study of the structure and behavior of the physical world, especially by watching, measuring, and doing experiments and the development of theories to describe the pure or applied science, recent development in science and technology, space travel is one of the marvels or wonders of modern science” (Cambridge Dictionaries Official Portal, 2015). Based on the Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, science also can be described as “knowledge attained through study or practice,” or “knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general law, especially as obtained and tested through scientific method and concerned with the physical world” (Science Dictionary Official Portal, 2015). Science has various meaning and various subjects that teach in the schools, colleges, universities, and institutions; which referring to the priority of the societies.

In Islamic perspective, science can be defined as the study of nature, where it’s considered to be linked to the concept of Tawhid (the Oneness of God), which connected to all other branches of knowledge (Iqbal, M., 2007). In Islam, they believe that nature is not seen as a separate entity, but as an integral part of Islam’s holistic outlook on God, humanity, and the world. The sentence state that the nature is actually connected with God, where nature is viewed in the Quran as a compilation of signs pointing to the Divine; and pursuit Muslim to apply the science method into nature to get more knowledge (Izutsu, T., 1964). This also bring an understanding and realization where to pursuit the science was tolerated in Islamic civilization, specifically during the eight to sixteenth centuries, prior to the colonization of the Muslim world (Sabra, A.I., 1996). So, again, science is the pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the nature and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence (what is science-science council.Org). It is a system of acquiring knowledge based on empiricism, experimentation, and methodological naturalism, and human can gain knowledge by doing research.

In the history of science, science in the Muslim world refers to the science developed under Islam civilization between the 8th and 16th centuries, where it’s also can be known as Islamic Golden Age (Sabra, A.I., 1996). One example can be proven by the empirical attitude of the Quran and Sunnah which inspired medieval Muslim Scientists, like Alhazen (965-1037) to develop the scientific method (Qadir, C.A., 1990). From there, Muslim science started to develop into more advance of geography, mathematic, and also in astronomers. For example, Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780-850), who develop algebra to solve the problem of the Islamic inheritance laws (Gandz, S., 1938), and help in the solving the direction of the Qibla, the times of Salah prayers, and the date of the Islamic calendar, through the development of astronomy, geography, spherical geometry, and spherical trigonometry (Gingerich, O., 1986). The develop of Islamic perspective in science still continue until today.

In 12th and 13th century, the develop of Islamic medicine is the influenced of the Islamic theologian, where Al-Ghazali are very concern on it and encourage to study the anatomy and use it as a method to gain more knowledge especially through the knowledge of God’s creation (Savage, S., 1995). For example, Al-Bukhari and Muslim’s collection of sahih hadith said, “There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its treatment.” (Bukhari 7-71:582). Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), who also help in the developed of science through Islam, discovered the pulmonary circulation in 1242 and help to discover as evidence for the orthodox Islamic doctrine of bodily resurrection (Fancy, N.A.G., 2006). 

Follow by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149-1209), who are more love in the physic, develop the concept of physics and physical world in his Matalib, discusses Islamic cosmology, criticizes the Aristotelian notion of the Earth’s centrality within the universe, and explore the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary, based on the Quranic verse “All praise belong to God, Lord of the Worlds.” He is the one that make and help to discover more on the conceptual of physic by critic and question it to the existence. Ali Kuscu’s (1403-1474), who are very support the Earth’s rotation and he reject the Aristotelian cosmology was motivated by religious opposition to Aristotle by orthodox Islamic theologians, such as Al-Ghazali.

The development of science in Islam is continue until the modern era. A number of modern scholar like Fielding H. Garrison, Abdus Salam, and Hossein Nars, who are continue develop in scientific method, by using or involve with the modern empirical, experimental, and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. Meanwhile, Donald Routledge Hill, Ahmad Y Hassan, Abdus Salam, and George Saliba, can be refer as a Muslim scientific revolution, where they are actually introduced a new scientific method from the traditional view and its more supported by most of the scholars. Even until the modern era, there are many scientist and scholar trying to develop Islamic perspective in Science. However, there are various challenges, problematic issues, and difficulties in trying develop science in Islam. For example, a simple explanation of human cloning, creating a new human from the original human with the same genetic and attitude, where it’s actually are one of the most successful research in the modern era, but it’s eventually against with the religious perspective. So, is there any important to continue the science into the future? Is there need to have Islamic science to react together? The answer is YES because without science, the country is difficult to increase and upgrading their level of living and only science can reduce the human difficulties in life.

Advantages of Science Education in Islamic Culture

Education plays the important role in developing country especially in Islamic nation to bring back their Golden Age into their nation. The first verses of the al-quran with the word ‘Read’ (Noble Quran 96:1) that emphasis the Islam believers the important of acquired and promoted knowledge. The prophet Muhammad (pbuh) also emphasized the important of seeking knowledge in different way:

a) Time : “Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave”
b) Place : “Seek knowledge even if is far as China”
c) Gender : “Seeking of knowledge is a duty of every Muslim”

Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) not only teaches about importance of knowledge but also emphasized promoting knowledge. For instance, during war of Badr, they caught 70 prisoners. One of the requirements if the prisoners want to be released is by teaching and literate ten Muslim children how to read and write.

Science education and culture give lots of benefits and advantages to the Islamic society. Form the Islamic point of view, science education is the study of a nature that can be linked to the concept of Tawhid (the Oneness of God) (Iqbal, 2007). The development of science and technology enable the Muslim discovered scientific information that contains in the Qur’an pertaining to creation, astronomy, biology, human reproduction and so on. Muslim also can discover the truth of Qur’an by scientific research. For example Allah said in the holy of Qur’an : “ have not those who disbelieve known that the heavens and the earth were one piece, then We parted them and We made every living things of water? (Noble Qur’an 21:30). This verse referring to the Big Bang theory and all living things are made from water since water being a necessary component for life. Lot of research already did by many scientists shows the truth of Qur’anic verse about this statement. Arthur Guyton’s in the Textbook of Medical Physiology stated that total amount of water in a man of average weight (70 kilograms) approximately 40 liters, averaging 57 percent of his total body weight.

Science education in Islamic society also can contribute to produce more responsible citizens. Students who have learned science will think critically the good and bad of science. Either it can bring benefit or bring harm to the world, environment and society. As Science for All American stated that, a good science education helps students “to develop to the understandings and habits of mind they need to become compassionate human beings able to think for themselves and to face life head on it. It should equip them also to participate thoughtfully with fellow citizens in building and protecting a society that open, decent and vital”. For example surrogate mother in Islam perspectives. The purpose of this method is good because help parents to have a child for those who has infertility problems. But in the 80th Muzakarah (conference) of Fatwa Committee National Council of Islamic Religious Affairs Malaysia stated that surrogacy is forbidden in Islam even sperm and ovum were taken from a married couple as this will bring the genetic confusion to the unborn baby.

Moreover, science education helps to build a strong economy especially to the Islamic states. Science education provides and produces a generation of individuals who are well prepared for any career and then contribute to the development of Islamic nations. Students who have a better knowledge in science will later be more open to emerging technologies and ideas that can boost businesses and stimulate the economy. As we all know, most of the countries in the world become developed countries because they emphasize and develop the science education for instance US, German, South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and so on. In these countries also contribute large amount of money for doing research and patenting then contributing to the economic development. 

Science education also can contribute to the global health. The Prophet said “There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also created its treatment.” This statement clearly emphasizes the Muslim to find cure for all diseases except death. To find cure for every diseases, someone need to have knowledge in science. Previously, Islamic scholars believe that there are cure for every disease and encouraged them to engage in biomedical research to find the cure. For example Al-Razi also known as father of Islamic medicine contribute lot of discoveries in medical field and we are still using until now because he has wide knowledge in science. Scientific advancement also led to longer, healthier and better lives. Furthermore, with scientific advancement Muslim knows the benefit and miracle of performing prayer 5 times a day. Scientific research show that performing prayers can increase the efficiency of the human heart and blood circulation; and the movement in prayer such as bowing and standing up which are very useful to the vertebral column.

Good science education will improve in decision making of an individual. Science education emphasizes and explains the dependency and interrelationship of living things on each other towards environment. Based on this type of knowledge, they will be more respect and taking care of their mother nature from any destruction that can interrupt the relationship among living things. For instance science students tough about food chain during science class, they will know the impact of bring harm to one or more pillars in the food chain. So they will think the best way and making the best decision to enhance the current living conditions for both humans and other living organisms.

Problems and Issues

Education has always played a dominating role in forming the destiny of nations and people especially in science and technology. As we all known, Islamic nation during the Golden age emphasized education in science and technology until they can conquered and develop their country until Spain, Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the whole North Africa and so on. All these countries had been submitted to the Islamic state and formed new civilization. Science in Islamic societies already lags far behind the scientific achievements of the west. This problem had raised several questions among Muslim scholars: “What caused the decline of science in the Muslim World?” and “Why Islamic states lag behind in science and technology?” 

Nowadays, there are some restrictions in science culture and science education in Islamic society, where it’s plays an important rule for science to develop. Islamic country usually lack of financial resources and incentives to develop their research and development (R&D) in science except oil-rich states. As we all known, the western countries succeed in development of science because they spend and their government pump in lots of money to do research especially in science. Japan, United States, Germany, and other western countries spend 2 percent or more of their gross domestic product (GDP) on research purpose. Otherwise, no Islamic countries spend more than 0.5 percent of its GDP for the purpose of R&D. Most of the Islamic countries lack in fund to do research and even fund is available, they did not want to spend much for the purpose of R&D. Long term research is needed to develop science and technology and requires lot of financial commitments. The prospects for stable research funding and effective institution building are also poor in Islamic nation. 

Another problem that Islamic nation faced is issue on brain-drain. Brain drain can be defined as one-way flow of highly skilled and educated people migrate to another country for a better job, salary, or living condition. Docquier and Marfouk (2006) defined brain drain in term of skilled emigrants as a proportion to stock of skilled population living in a country. Normally human capital from Islamic countries moving to Western countries because of weak economic conditions, security issues, internal problems, gender inequality, limited jobs opportunity, lack of manufacturing and agriculture activities, and so on. For example, according to the International Monetary Fund, more than 150,000 of highly educated of Iranian move to another countries in every year in the early 1990s. According to Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) database, around 12 million migrant from Islamic Development Bank (IDB) countries (consist of 56 members) migrants including around 2 million highly skilled migrants, born in member of IDB countries are residents in OEDC countries. This showed that large amount of highly educated Muslim stay and working at another country. This issue bring a big lost to Islamic nation for developing science in their countries.

Furthermore, Islamic countries lag in development of science education because of ignorant of Muslim Ulema in the rapid development of Science and technology in Western nations and their high standard of living. They consider the poor economic condition among Islamic nations because of God Will. This way of thinking is not true and definitely unislamic way of thinking. Allah said in the holy of al-quran “Verily ! Allah will never change the condition of the people until they change it themselves (with state of Goodness). But when Allah wills a punishment for them, there can be no turning back of it, and they will not find a protector besides Him” (Noble Quran 13:11).  Prominent Islamic scholars also remarked about this issue. Afghani and Syed Sulaiman stated that “Ulema ignorant of modern knowledge cannot serve the Ummah”. Maulana Abul Hasan Ali Nadvi (founder Member of Rabita al-alam al-islami) also said “Muslim forgot their own scientific way of thinking and followed only traditional knowledge. They therefore lagged behind in Science and Technology and thus became slaves of the scientifically advanced West”. Malaysian 4th Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Muhammad also emphasized this issue during Islamic Conference in Kuala Lumpur. He said it is necessary for Muslims to give up their illogical beliefs and regressing thoughts and be prepared to face challenges of the fast changing social order.

Moreover, lacking of quality among Universities in Islamic nation also contribute to the lag of science education. According to Pervez Amirali Hoodboy, among 1800 universities in Organisation of the Islamic Countries (OIC) nations, only 312 publish journal articles produced and no OIC universities was included in the top 500 of the “Acedemic Ranking of World Universities”, which was produced by Shanghai Jiou Tong University. The literacy among Muslim society also poor compared to Christian society. Based on the data form United Nation Development Program (UNDP) in 2001, an average only 60 percent literacy in Islamic countries compare to 95 to 100 percent in the west countries. This figures show that Islamic nations lack of quality in providing education to their citizens and lack of education policies that can improve their education. 

Discussion

Muslim world need to find ways how to solve the problem from lag far behind from Western countries in term of science and technology. In my opinion, Islamic countries need to invest more in their R&D and patenting. As we all know, western countries succeed and very developed because they spend large amount of their money in R&D and patenting. Islamic countries need to focus doing research that can contribute to their own economical purpose rather than buying the technologies from the other countries. Usually, Islamic countries blessed lots of natural resources especially oil and gas. They have lots of natural resources that can be developed by using science and technology. They also have highly talented human capital that migrant to the other countries. If Islamic countries develop their science and become a developed country, the Islamic migrant will come back to their own homeland rather than working at western countries. So the issue on brain-drain among Muslim societies did not happen anymore.

Furthermore, Islamic nations need to seat together to discuss the problem that happen among Islamic countries especially to emphasize science education among Muslims. This kind of meeting and conferences need to organize continuously such as Organisation of the Islamic Conferences (OIC), that discuss and share lots of important things among Islamic countries. Islamic nation also need to unite together and avoid war between them in order to bring back Golden Age to their nation. If we read the story, Islamic nation become stronger and lot of countries submitted to Islamic countries because they unite and they have strong leaders that control every Islamic country. In that period, Islamic leaders are intelligent leader that have lots of knowledge especially in Al-Quran and Sunnah.

The Islamic nations also can share experiences with Western countries by doing collaboration with them in order to learn how they develop and success in education in science within their culture. They also can exchange their students with western countries to provide them experience how western countries teach and deliver science education in their schools or universities compared to their homeland. Moreover, Islamic countries need to learn from the history of Golden Age how the previous Islamic scientists very successful in their science education until they well known around the world and their work are still using until know. In my opinion, Islamic student in this period lack of passion in study and doing science compared to Golden Age time where they are very concentrate and tried very hard to solve problems that can easier and contribute to the societies. So, Islamic nations need to find the best ways how to emphasize science education among Islamic society to become a strong and respected country.

Conclusion  

As a conclusion, Islamic world need to change and find the best way to develop their science education for a sustainable development. They cannot only depend on their natural resources because this type of economic based is not last long. As we all know, natural resources are non renewable resources and will deplete in a certain time. So, Islamic nation need to develop and emphasize their science education in their culture because science is one of important component to develop a strong country in social, environment and economy. Islamic nation need to unite and avoid war between them that can bring loss to the Islamic world. They also need to seat together and discuss how to improve their science to bring back Golden Age to them.

References

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The Drug, The Company, The Life: A Review

Abstract

Drug becomes an essential 'tool' to reduce pain in daily life. However, religious perspectives are less 'positively agreed' in drugs usage especially towards company production for medicine purposes. However, medicine had successfully save thousands of life in reducing pain suffering. Therefore, drug is important for patients to continuing survivor.

Keywords: Drug, Medicine, Religious, Patients, Survivor.

Citation of Article:
Hua, A.K. (2016). The Drug, The Company, The Life: A Review. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science & Technology, 2(1), 1-5.


Introduction

Drug is very important in our daily life to treat the disease. Drug can kill the germ or virus in the body that may cause sick, or pain with the drug digest by the antibody. However, some drug may bring bad impact towards the human, especially children. Paroxetine is 1 of 6 drugs in the class of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or SSRIs; may cause the risk of suicide. This can be prove in the year of 1998, where the antidepressant paroxetine had no beneficial effect in treating adolescent. However, the company and the medical center will plays a big role in facing the problem; but they try to withhold the data about the SSRI use in the children. So, this actually are against the rule in the research field, especially involve the medical research. Actually, the drug should undergo the test to confirm that the benefits of the drug still out-weigh its potential risk before its can be use by public.

When we are looking forward to the problem, Paroxetine was no more effective than placebo in treating pediatric depression, a study in 1993-1996 conducted in US. So, the Paroxetine are believed to have no effect in treating the depression. Paroxetine (also known by the trade names Aropax, Paxil, Pexeva, Seroxat, Sereupin) is an antidepressant drug of the SSRI type. Paroxetine is used to treat major depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder in adult outpatients. From the information, taking Paroxetine may cause adverse effect like contraindications, suicide, discontinuation syndrome, interaction, and also overdosage. Britain‟s Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Authority (MHRA) advised doctors in June 2003 that the paroxetine should not be prescribed to patients under the ages of 18 because evidence from various clinical trials showed that episodes of suicidal behavior were between 1.5 and 3.2 times higher in children taking drug than in those receiving placebo. From the prove show that, when the drug test are undergoes among the children during 1993-1996, the clinical trial result were, according to the document, “insufficiently robust” to support an application to regulatory authorities for a label change approving Seroxat for use in pediatric depression. The drug test is actually fail for use in the children, however, the company are trying to withhold the data from public so that they can find another way for treating the paroxetine for children.


Methods and Materials

The purpose of drug is to help human in curing and surviving the life. So, if the drug are never give any response to the victim, then it may bring the harm to the user of the drug. “In medical research on human subjects, consideration related to the wellbeing of the human subject should take precedence over the interests of science and society (WMA, para5).” From the paragraph above, show that we must very concern on the human life when taking human as a subject for any research. So, the medical center or the researcher should know the situation of human subject before undergo for the drug test or drug study. The researcher must know “Is the trial on the children will give any effect?” or “This test will save the depression children?”. However, when the result on drug test are announce, either a positive impact or negative impact; the company and the researcher must need to be transparent and honestly with the result to the parents. The company plays an important role in treating the data to the public. Moreover, if the result is bad news or negative impact, this will lead to the depression on life to be continuing more worst and even may bring death. The company and the medical center will bring harm to the public especially to the patients.

Secondly, if the patients agreed to undergo for the drug test; and in the process, the test seem to be fail, the patient parent or native have the right to cancel the drug test. If the test continues, then the human will become a victim as the company and the medical center doing the research is just for the sake science breakthrough. As Fernandez et al (2003) argue, the principle of respect for persons „requires that individual who capable of making decisions for themselves be accorded high regard, and this is embodied in the concept and practice of free and informed consent‟. So, human have the right to stop any kind of treatment if there will bring more harm to the patient. It also follows from principles of justice and fairness that those who are not competent to consent should not be exploited as prime candidates for research. So, both parents for children that having the illness on the depression, they need to know the rule before they send their children for drug test.


Discussion

When the drug test on mice succeed, but the drug test are need to go for the human as a subject. In religious perspective, especially in Islamic view, Al-Quran; state that “Then, eat of all fruits, and follow the ways of your Lord made easy (for you).” There comes forth from their bellies, a drink of varying colour wherein is healing for men. (AN NAHL, ayat 68-69), means Allah wants people to seek for cure even if it come in the mysterious way (as long as the method is not harm). In Hadith, from Jabir bin Abdullah, Muhammad (phuh) said : There is a remedy for every sickness, and when the remedy is applied to the disease it is cured with the permission of Allah, the Exalted and Glorious. (Narrated by Muslim and Ahmad). In this paragraph, it means that everybody have obligation to find cure. In the Quran, Holy book of Islam, God has said; “God does not forbid you from showing kindness and dealing justly with those who not fought you about and have not driven you out of your homes. God loves just dealers.” (Quran, chapter 60/ verse 8). From the paragraph above, we know that God is the creator of anything, and God wants human to love and respect each other, and not trying to take advance on each other just because of the luxury property. So the company should not be selfish just because of the money and never concern on the children life.

In Buddhism view, Buddhism provide guidelines for the village justice, namely in the form of the five basic moral prohibitions (the Pancha Sila, or the five precepts for the laity), which is refrain for taking life, don‟t steal, avoid illicit sexual activity, don‟t speak falsely, and refrain from consuming inebriating substances. These guidelines are supposed to be followed by the lay people and monks.(from the Buddhism And Views On Morality, Desire, And Violance). The religious historian I.B. Hunter wrote: “The criteria of Buddhist morality is to ask yourself, when there is one of three kinds of deeds you want to do, whether it will lead to the hurt of self, of others, or of both. If you come to the conclusion that it will be harmful, then you must not do it. But if you form the opinion that it will be harmless, then you can do it and repeat. A person that torments neither himself or another is already transcending the active life.” So, in such a way, the company should follow the teach, which they should not trying to cheat in any sense just because to get more benefits on other people. Moreover, the cheat towards the data will bring bad impact especially death to the children when the company withhold the data. The company should not practice bad habit in treating bad to other and harm to other people. Moreover, the Great Buddhist said; “So come what may, I‟ll never harm; My cherry happiness of mind. Depression never brings me what I wants, My virtue will be warped and marred by it”, means that there are happiness in every person live, for a freedom person. When there is someone or something that depress on the situation, than this will never bring the freedom and may cause sadness in the person. So, this situation can be view in children itself. When they are forces to get the drug test and, may cause pain to them, thus the children will never have a happy life in their own.

In Hinduism perspective, they teach that cheating is very bad attitude. In a universal sense, cheating and other forms of immoral behavior are accepted as necessary for the Divine Play to unfold. Futhermore, everything that is done anywhere at any time is accomplished by Shakti-Prakriti –“He sees [truly] who sees that all actions entirely are being performed by Prakriti, and that the Self is not the Doer.” (Gita 13: 29). Therefore, who is there to blame? And who is to blame whom? “Deluded by ego, a person thinks,” I am the Doer.” (3: 27). In a personal sense, however, cheating or lying creates obstacles to spiritual unfoldment. Therefore, it is not condoned, but rather it is recommended that individuals interested in attaining enlightenment and liberation, the ultimate Goal of all Hindus, should conform to ethical behavior as much as possible. So the company or the researcher should not practice in cheating when involve with the life. If there are happened, this may cause harm to the children. Moreover, Ghandi also concern in the human right in human live, by saying that “I learnt from my illiterate but wise mother that all rights to be deserved and preserved came from duty well done. Thus, the very right to live accrues to us only when we do the duty of citizenship of the world. From this one fundamental statement, perhaps it is easy enough to define the duties of Man and of Woman and correlate every right to some corresponding duty to be first performed.” So when the statement is applied in this situation, where the children are actually have the right to argue with their parents when they are scare to undergo for the drug study. The children have the right to live in a freedom, happy and the normal life. The holy prayer of Hinduism from time immemorial has been state that “Let all be happy, Let all be free from disease, Let all see auspicious things, Let nobody suffer from grief.” From the statement, can show that how important in life with living happily with free of disease and no people suffer when the pain can be treat. So, if the company is no effort to cure the depression, then it is better not cheating the public and the children by changing on the data.

From the previous view above, if the company is selfish, this will lead to the failure in the research. The company should practice the value of disinterestedness, which is the company supposed to act the benefit for the public good rather than for personal gain. Taking as an example, in the journal of Industry-Sponsored Clinical Research, if there are involve a large of funding in the drug test, the bias will on the result will be the problem. The investigator designed the studies, analyzed and interpreted the data, wrote the papers, and decided where and how to report the results. Generally, the investigator nor their institutions had other financial connections to sponsoring companies. So, in addition to grant support by the company, faculty investigators often have other financial ties to the sponsors of their research. Clinical research that is published is often biased, usually by designing the studies in ways that will almost inevitably yield favorable results for the sponsor. From the point, means the data may be bias towards to the company, and the result may change from negative to positive. So, this will give the harm to the children and make more advantages to the company and the medical center. Since the drug may cause death or bad impact, the company should practice the value of organized skepticism. The company should transparent about the data and expose on the result, so that they get criticize on the drug test before it can be sell or use by public. Changing the result of data is not scientific method to practice. However, the journal on “scientists behaving badly” may cause the data to change in short-time. Taking for an example, in 2000, the US Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) defined research misconduct as “fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism (FFP) in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results”. The modern scientist faces intense competition, and is further burdened by difficult, sometimes unreasonable, regulatory, social, and managerial demands. This mix of pressures creates many possibilities for the compromise of scientific integrity that extend well beyond FFP. When the situation exists, together with the problem that faces in this paper, the scientist or researcher may tend to change the result just because of pressure from the company and also the public. So, that‟s important for the company to expose the result to the other researcher to make a criticism on the result that may cause harm to the children. Moreover, the company and the researcher should know that the scientific results are the common property of the entire scientific community, which involve with the value of communalism. The success of the drug test will be benefits for sharing among the community. The duty to participate in research is not a duty to enable industry to profit from moral commitment or basic decency, and that fairness and benefit sharing as well as the widest and fairest possible availability of the product of research is an essential part of the moral force of the argument for the obligation to pursue research. Benefit sharing must be part of any mechanism for implementing the arguments on the research of science.

The drug study is actually trying to save the people from being pain. The researcher is demonstrating in a term “mandatory contribution to public good”. (Harris,J. 2012). From the sentence, lifesaving is a major product of science research. So, once the drug test is success, the children are believed to have a happy and good life, but before they did, the company should not involve or disturbing into the research when the result are announce. And the researcher also must realize that their role that changing the result will never change the good things except bad things. The Declaration of Helsinki states: “Medical research is only justified if there is a reasonable likelihood that the population in which the research is carried out stand to benefits from the results of the research”. (WMA, para 19). The research is not directly beneficial to the patients but also to the public good when the drug test is success, where the disease can be cure from being depression on the children. The company and the researcher need to be responsible and honest when preferring with the drug test. Both parties should undergo the consequentialism and deontology. They cannot lie by changing the data; because when they lie, this will kill the children that suffering in the depression illness.


Conclusion

As a conclusion, Depression is “a mental state or chronic mental disorder characterized by feelings of sadness, loneliness, despair, low self-esteem, and self-reproach.” There are some treatment like exercise, taking right nutrition, having more sleep, and social support that can help in reduce depression. However, there will involve a long term to overcome the depression. So, the only way to overcome it fast is by medical treatment; but the company or researcher, or even the medical center must concern on the important of the life. When researcher are being ask whether there is a moral obligation to support and even to participate in serious scientific research, that‟s need first to be clear that the scientist are talking of research directed towards preventing serious harm or providing significant benefits to humankind. In all cases, the degree of harm or benefits must justify the degree of burden on research subject, individual, or society. The research must surely be serious in the sense that the project is well designed and with reasonable prospect of leading to important knowledge that will benefit persons in the future.


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