A Case Report of Educational in 3D and 2D towards Primary Mathematics

Abstract

Mathematics subject involve in daily life. Various materials consist of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) form that exist in space and shape. However, majority of the primary students are unable to mastering the basic of geometry in Mathematics subject. Therefore, this research report was conduct to identify the effectiveness of using teaching aid to apply in classroom through ‘playing and learning’ session. As a result, ‘playing and learning’ process plus the help of using teaching aids shows more successful in mastering the geometry of 2D and 3D. Therefore, students could be able to remember more information when expose through experience of ‘playing’ in learning the Mathematics subject than having the memorization.

Keywords: 2D and 3D, playing and learning, teaching aid, experience, memorization

Citation of Article:
Ping, O. W., & Hua, A. K. (2016). A Case Report of Educational in 3D and 2D towards Primary Mathematics. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Science, 3(2), 8-12.


Introduction

Mathematics is a subject that studies on quantity, structure, space and changes. From time to time, the mathematical experts are continuously experiment, studies, and produce varieties of formulae such as Trigo’s Law and so on. Including geometry, this topic are contained in Mathematics subject that compulsory need to learn by students especially in primary and secondary schools. It became important and evidence to human perspective due to the statistics geometry is being applied in every parts of daily life, for example architecture. The two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) is considering a sub-headings topic in geometry mathematics and students need to master the topic because the geometry have ability to trains the student to ‘make reasoning and thinking logically’. However, majority students in the developing countries like Malaysia are still ‘fail’ to mastering this topic. A research study conducted by Zawani[8]found that students in standard four are still unable to identify the characteristics of 3D shapes. This situation could be occurs due to the failure of teachers to use appropriate methods and strategic in delivering teaching and learning or ‘Pengajarandan Pembelajaran’ (PDP) related to this topic [4] [5]. Nevertheless, there are various methods and strategies can be applied by teachers during the process of PDP for the geometry topic in mathematics [6]. According to Gardner [3], every individual has a range of intelligence, but the used and application will be different way for everyone. Hence, teachers need to identify the intelligence possessed by students in order to plan appropriate activities of PDP by using appropriate strategies.

Based on the general literature review indicate that there are similarities and differences of strategies used in teaching on the topic of ‘space’ and ‘form’, where the article focuses on the students' understanding on the topic by itself and not by memorizing. One of the strategies used is self-discovery, where students need to explore the content of education by themselves. For example, identify the 3D features, students should know either the features found on a 3D form or vice versa. It became more effective when teacher at surrounding to guide the students. At the same time, teacher will have the ability to use teaching aids to attract the students to change their mindset towards mathematics that are considered difficult and boring into more interesting and more fun. However, these method used are vary according to the level and content that will be taught to the students.

Objective of Study

The case study conduct to report on the access of possibility in applied 2D and 3D in educational process in Mathematics subject in primary school. Based on specific model and formula that be applied into primary students, mastering Mathematics subject will be defined and if necessarily, an innovation towards formulae will be conducted to facilitate with the students to mastery the Mathematics.


Methodology

The research applied qualitative approach, which using observation study towards standard 1, 2 and 3 in primary school. Only five (5) students are selected from good class, moderate class, and weak class. The students will undergoes pre-post-test, where they will be tested to define the 2D shape (refer as pre-test) before the teacher guide the students to determine the correct shape. Afterwards, the students will be tested again for 3D shape (refer as post-test), where examination study are conducted to define critical thinking of the students level. Collection of the raw data will undergoes for descriptive analysis and correlated with the previous model and concept in evaluate the student’s achievement.


Results and Discussions

A study conducted by Zawani[8] related to the characteristics of 3D form entitled "Application of Domino game in Improving Comprehension Pupils in Year 4 of the characteristics of Form 3 Dimensions" is a method of ‘playing while learning’. Domino cards become the learning aid where each card will only has one information either the shape of 3D, specific characteristics of 3D or the names of 3D shape. Student will play together with other partners, where they have to identify the characteristics of the 3D shape and place it at the cardboard that have the same characteristics. If the card that students holding does not match with the cardboard, then the student will lose the chance to put the domino cards. With this method, students can learn better because they can learn indirectly, and the experience of ‘playing while learning’ will leave a longer impression on the memory of the student.

The advantages of this research study is to identify the cause of student that are unable to capture the characteristics of the 3D shape leading to the majority of teachers in schools are still use the traditional strategy of memorization. This situation still exists because the traditional method used had saves a lot of time and much help to focus on more important topics. However, this method gives a negative impact where it reduces the students’ interest towards mathematic and felt it was boring. Through the ‘playing while learning’ method can nurture students' interest in learning and students will strive to explore the content of education with the guidance of a teacher. Indirectly, it can enhance students' understanding on the characteristics of 3D shapes and students have the ability to correct the mistakes made by the other friends. According to Brock et al [1], ‘playing while learning’ may provide opportunities to children through the restructuring process, new discoveries, the construction of knowledge and concepts. Lastly, students are also can re-learn the 3D-specific features through the ‘playing while learning’ method. However, there are little weakness where teachers are compulsory in make sure the students can identify and well knows for all the names and the main features on the 3D shapes such as surfaces, corners and edges. This is important because when playing cards domino students need to know which cards can be placed in the game so that the game runs smoothly.

According to Ozerem [4], where he indicates about misconceptions that often occur in geometry and suggested how to resolve the issues and problems in "Misconceptions in Geometry and Suggested Solutions for Seventh Grade Students". The method apply by using 'scarfolding' or known as guidance, where the students were able to master the skills at a certain level, the teacher will assign a higher level to be achieved by students. Firstly, the students will try to reach that level by itself. If students are unable to reach that level, then the teacher should give guidance to students by providing more or less the same questions but quite easier to let students to understand the concept in its own way. Thus, it will be easier for students to master these skills. In addition, the use of teaching aids is also important because it can help students to understand something more abstract and will leave a longer impression. According to Gal and Linchevski [2] states that children prefer to visual material compared with writing materials in classifying and identifying shapes studied. Therefore, the use of teaching aids is very important in the study of space and shape. This method will allow teachers to plan activities that are more concentrate in student-centered and materials and creating opportunities for students to explore about space and form.

The advantages of this article stated by researchers that every mistake made by the students during the exams are need to be carefully identify and determine on how to resolve these errors. The method applied is to give guidance to students. Various learning aids that used as ‘mauwujud’ (model 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional), training, information technology and so on. After researchers identify the errors and factors, the researchers carefully analyze every mistake made by the students and suggest appropriate teaching methods to overcome the problems encountered. Each problem using different methods and strategies to overcome such as lack of understanding for the concept of geometry, the study recommended the use of ‘mauwujud’ in learning sessions and training. The method used is student-centered and materials which teachers should help students to understand the concepts of geometry such as edges, corners, angles and so on. With increasing exercise can help students to get used to answering questions and find out the types of questions that are commonly asked. In a way, the students can understand more through exercise made and such methods can help teachers to overcome misconceptions in resolving questions related to the geometry and can also avoid the negligence occurred. To overcome the problem of using wrong formula, the researchers propose to use materials that can manipulate ‘mauwujud’ by students. For example, searching for cuboid area, teachers can provide a large cuboid and lots of small cuboid. Teachers can plan activities with manipulated by finding the area through having students to fill in the small cuboid into large cuboid, then counting the number of small cuboid that placed in big cuboid. Next, the teacher can make a comparison between the use of formula with findings of the inquiry. In this way students will understand how are the wide (broad) formula define and it allows students to understand on their own way. The weakness in this study was researchers did not elaborate on the example of the error in more detail and how to develop teaching strategies for more advanced stage.

According to the article written by Vincent Snipes and Pamela Moses [7] said that local cultural can be influences on teaching about the concept of how to find the area where the geometry of the cube is different from place to place. The author gives examples of how carpenter calculating in forming a rectangular area in the production of furniture in different countries despite the carpenter does not know the reasons and did not learn it directly. The method applied in the teaching of geometry for the title to facilitate students' understanding of geometry is primarily attributable to the rectangle with square sides. Teaching strategies in delivering the content and the form of the space is to use the findings of the inquiry strategy where students are not told how to make a rectangle using only a piece of paper and identify the characteristics of a rectangle on its own.

The advantages of this article are students need to conduct research on the formula that will be studied. In this article explains how teachers plan activities across a broad form of 2D and having a question-and-answer session with the students. Through a question and answer session, the students are able to know and understand on its own way on how formula of an area could be found. Then, the teachers will be introduced to more about how to find the area for other forms (or shape). This method helps students take responsibility for their own learning and trying to understand the meaning of a concept rather than having memorization. The author also said modifications can be made in teaching according to the objectives to be achieved, particularly in terms of the properties of the rectangle itself. In addition, the authors also describe the teaching methods for finding an angle of 90 degrees. The method used is also the same as the invention of the inquiry where students have to carry out a study in order to understand about a 90 degree angle. This is particularly important as the introduction of something abstract angle is compared with the area and perimeter of 2D shapes. However, there are many students that still do not understand what is meaning of the angle. Teaching strategies of 2D and 3D shapes for each country is different, and this can be connected by the local culture. So, it is important to make the link between the real situations with mathematical formulae because students will find it easier to understand compared to just memorize the formulas that did not mean for them. With this invention inquiry strategy will enable students to better understand and effectively. By the way, the researchers are still opinion that the ‘local culture’ plays an important role and will affect teaching methods in mathematics of space and form. The weaknesses of this article are the author not specifically elaborates on how the teacher introduces students to a wide angle and student learning outcomes or results. This article is focused on the influence of local culture on learning geometry.

Classroom Teaching Activities About ‘Space and Form’ For Lower Primary Students (Standard 1, 2 and 3).

Time: Required 60 minutes (Approximately 1 hours)
Field: Space and Geometry
Title: Space Standard Content: Identify the form of three-dimensional (3D)
Standard Learning: Students able to name the shape of cuboid, cube, cone, pyramid square, cylindrical and spherical.
Teaching Aids: Mauwujud (can, boxes, balls,dictionary), model of 3D form (cuboid, cube, cone, pyramid square, cylindrical and spherical), powerpoint slide

The strategy used in this daily program is student-centered and the materials allow students to explore on their own about the content of lessons to be learned by them on the day. With the use of ‘mauwujud’ in real life, this allows students to correlate between the actual situations with the situation in the classroom. The inductive approach creates opportunities for students to observe and interpret and generalize by what they saw. Through a set of activities designed, the induction allows students to express other objects they know. Indirectly, the students must make observations on the characteristics of the object which can help to makes interpretation available to address other objects that have the same characteristics. Finally, students should make generalizations by declaring the object. Indirectly, students can explore science by itself as intended by the National Education Philosophy (FPK).

The use of 3D model allows students to touch and feel and knowing the model of itself features on the 3D model such as the vertices, edges, surfaces and others. 3D models can help students to understand the meaning of vertices, edges and surfaces with a twist. For example, vertex is referring to angle while the side is referring to a straight line on the 3D model. By applying this methods, it will help students to understand more accurately and widely because when explain by using 3D drawing, students will have difficulty in understanding all the features of 3D due to its abstract. Activities Step 1 enable students identify their own characteristics that are 3D models and facilitate students to understand the contents to be conveyed by teachers through exploration strategy.

Activities in step 2 are test students' understanding after the session PDP delivered. This activity requires students to understand the characteristics of the given and then match the corresponding 3D image. Group activities allow students to wisely guide the weak students in mastering the topic through the learning skills. Next, step 3 requires students to explore the 3D then stated the characteristics. In this way, students will have opportunities to learn while playing where they firstly have to find (referring as playing session) then tell the characteristics of the (referring as learning session). This method of learning while playing can help students to remember longer on the features in 3D and imagine the shape. This activity can attract students to scramble to respond.

Furthermore, the assessment was carried out indirectly, where teachers will select students randomly to express the features on the 3D model that being shown. Such assessments can provide feedback on the session of PDP conducted to assess the efficacy of whether students have mastered the skills taught or otherwise. The strategy applied in step 4 is more concentrate on teacher-centered event especially when students are giving the wrong answer, the teacher must correct immediately. For final session, the teacher asked the students to express what they have learned during the class conducting and students will be able to draw conclusions and provide appropriate examples.


Conclusion and Recommendations

As conclusion, teaching strategies are very important especially in delivering the PDP for the topic of space and form because it is something more abstract compare to the other subject. This topic involves in many elements including 2D, 3D, perimeter, area, angle and so on. If the students could be able to understand the topic by its own and this will have given an opportunities to the students to solve the questions related to geometry when they face the questions.


Limitation

Since the research report is conducting in a small quantity of respondents, the results are reliable for this observation study based qualitative approach. However, this research report will be more supportive in the accuracy and precisely when conducting the quantitative approach through questionnaire.

References

[1] Brock, A., Sylvia, D., Jarvis, P., &Olusoga, Y. (2009). Perspectives on play: Learning for Life. England: Pearson Education Limited.

[2] Gal, H., &Linchevski, L. (2010). To seeor not to see: analyzing difficulties in geometry from the perspective of visual perception. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 74(2), 163-183.

[3] Gardner, H. (1983). Multiple Intelligences and Education. Available online at Oktober 03, 2015, https://goo.gl/70uPXU

[4] Özerem, A. (2012). Misconceptions ingeometry and suggested solutions for seventh grade students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 55, 720-729.

[5] Ping, O.W. and Hua, A.K. (Jun 2015).Effectiveness of Division Wheel in Basic Mathematics Operation Case Study: Primary School Perspective. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education.5(3), 52-56.

[6] Ping, O.W. and Hua, A.K. (September 2015). Mathematical Operations from Teacher to Student: A Case Study of Applied Division Wheel in Primary School. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research.3(9), 82-86.

[7] Vincent, S. and Pamela, M. (October 3, 2015). Linking Mathematics and Culture to Teach Geometry Concepts. Retrieved from http://www.lamath.org/journal/Vol1/LinkCult.pdf

[8] Zawani, A.M.Z. (2014). PenggunaanBahanTigaDimensi (3D) untuMeningkatkanKemahiranBerfikir Aras TinggiDalamSubjekKajianTempatanBagiMuridTahun 5 SMART.Seminar PenyelidikanTindakan. Pg. 1-4.

Cooking Oil Management in Cafeteria Operator: A Review

Abstract

Cooking oil become an issues in management problems. Since repeatedly usage of cooking oil could bring harm and dangerous to environment and human health, the waste cooking oil can be used for other purposes in producing new products. Continuously research study should be carry out in investigate, design, define, and determine the best solution for the issues and problems in cooking oil management.

Keywords: Cooking oil management, issues and problems, research study, new products

Citation of Article:
Noor, N.A.M., & Hua, A.K. (2016). Cooking Oil Management in Cafeteria Operator: A Review. International Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science, 1(4), 29-39.


Introduction

Globally, cooking oil is used for the preparation of food. Cooking oil consists of plant, animal, synthetic fat used in frying, baking and other types of cooking.  Basic scientific definition for cooking oil can be pronounced as glycerol esters of fatty acids. Common types of cooking oil use in most countries include Malaysian are palm oil, peanut oil, corn oil and sunflower oil. This oil is used as a heat-transfer medium in frying to generate nicely cooked foods. Cooking oil is typically liquid, although some oils that contain saturated fat such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil which exist in solid at room temperature. Based on the export statistic of cooking oil, Malaysia is among top three exporter of palm oil in the world. About 40% of palm oil mostly made into cooking oil, margarine, specialty fats and oleochemicals. Major of cooking oil made from palm oil. Meanwhile, used cooking oil term refers to cooking oil that is no longer used in food production. The main producers of used cooking oil are the restaurants, food stalls, night market and cafeteria. The disposal of cooking oil becomes an issue and problems because of fried food such as fried chicken, French fries and burgers can produce as much as 15 litres of used cooking oil per day (excluding the business restaurants in university). There are more than hundreds of restaurants in Malaysia and larger volume of used cooking oil is generated per day.

Production and consumption of cooking oil increase will causes the amount of waste cooking oil generated to increases. Cooking oil allocation in Malaysia was reported 7000 tonnes a month in 2010 (Akademi Science Government, 2012). Based on the statistic of cooking oil allocation versus cooking oil consumption in 2010 (Figure 1) indicate that the highest consumption of cooking oil are found on January and the month of Ramadhan with more than 73, 000 0000 tones. The main reason for the statistic to fall on Ramadhan is because many restaurant, hotel, night market or “Bazar Ramadhan” are opening on evening that provide several food which involve with the cooking oil in preparation for food. These become major factor to increase the graph of consumption cooking oil drastically. Meanwhile, Cooking Oil Subsidy report from Akademi Sains Malaysia (2012) showed the top 8 of Malaysian favorite food (Table 1), which required cooking oil as main resources for preparation food. The table resulted are not includes deep frying meat-based products such as fast food (include Kentucky Fried Chicken, McDonald, Burger King), “keropok lekor”, fish cakes, sausages and so on. Majority of Malaysian especially the teenagers and children are like deep fried foods due to their taste, smell and texture. On the other hands, fast food can also be considered as easiest and cheapest ways of cooking to consume. Even though a little amount of potential toxic products such as polar compounds or polymers are produced during frying, fried foods are considered safe. However, it becomes toxic for human consumption if the frying oil is used repeatedly (Artman, 1969).

Waste cooking oil is reported as widely produced all over the world (Kulkarni and Dalai, 2005). Improper waste management of cooking oil leads to discharge of waste cooking oil to environment and this will effect environment and harm the human health. The increasing production of waste cooking oil from household or food industrial source is a new era of growing problems in Malaysia. The waste cooking oil is regularly poured down directly to sink or drain without having any treatment will result in problems for wastewater treatment plants. Fat, oil and grease will cause major problems to drain and sewers. When the waste oil is directly pour down from kitchen sinks or drains, it will cause blockage and bring pollution in streams and rivers when entering the rainwater pipes.  Oils and grease may cause the clogging of the pipes because they stick to the inner walls and reduce the diameter of the sewer pipes. Sewage spills will occur when the layer is thicker. The worst condition is it will disrupts normal operations  if the oil reaches the wastewater treatment plants and  both maintenance costs are extremely high with the rates to be paid for the purification of the water is increase (Payri et al., 2005). Therefore, this review study is conduct to understand the management of cooking oil in cafeteria operator.

Discussion

According to the Basiron (2007) indicate that palm oil are more cheaper and widely used compared to cooking oil from soy and corn oil due to the higher price. According to the study, palm oil has advantages in using for repeatedly frying due to the unique composition in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) but low level of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). The PUFA are more easily in oxidized to form toxic compounds that increased the risk of hypertension when repeating heating, which result in harm and dangerous to human health (Serbinova et al, 1991). On the other hands, palm oil compound with ability in withstand thermal oxidative changes will maintain the vitamin E quality that consist of tocotrienols which have better antioxidant than tocopherols that exist in soy oil (Serbinova et al, 1991). Therefore, palm oil is more favorable than soy and corn oil due to the chemical benefits and low cost to consume especially in Malaysian.

However, there are some expert criticize the repeating usage of cooking oil will harm and dangerous to human health. Household or food businesses sector are practice in reuse the same frying oil more than 2 times because of budget constraints. Nevertheless, deep frying is a frying process where the food is completely immersed in the frying oil in the presence of air and moisture at temperatures of between 160-190ºC. Chemical reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis and thermal polymerization occur when cooking oil is heated during the deep frying process. The quality of oil deteriorates with increased length of frying time due to the accelerated formation of oxidized and polymerized lipid in the frying medium. Frequently used heated cooking oil can cause changes in physical appearances of the oil such as increased viscosity, darkening in color, increased foaming and decrease in smoke point. The rate of formation of cooking oil decomposition products depends on the type of food being fried, the type of oil used and the design of the fryer (Azman et al, 2001; Stevenson et al, 1984). Consumption of frequently used cooking oil may increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis. Lipid peroxidation products induce oxidative stress in endothelial dysfunction that could lead to the formation of atherosclerosis. Moreover, thermally oxidized lipids enhance peroxidation of membrane macromolecules, contributing to their mutagenicity and genotoxicity which could potentially lead to carcinogenesis.

A recent study conducted by Leong et al (2010) showed that consumption of soy oil that has been reused frequently might cause an increase in lipid peroxidation and LDL in ovariectomized female rats (which stimulates a post- menopausal state with estrogen deficiency in humans). The study carry out in laboratory resulted in increased blood pressure and necrosis of cardiac tissues in experimental rats. The increase in blood pressure due to consumption of repeatedly heated cooking oil might be due to quantitative changes in endothelium dependent and independent factors including enzymes directly involved in the regulation of blood pressure. Another study Department of Production Engineering (2005) indicates that the increasing production of waste cooking oil from household and food business operators will provide problems in Brazil (Castellanelli and Mello, 2007). This residue is regularly directly poured down the sink or drain, resulting in problems for wastewater treatment plants and energy loss. This will contributes to the pollution of rivers, lakes, sea and underground water, which is very harmful for environment and human health (Hamasaki et al, 2001). Furthermore, it might integrate into the food chain through animal feeding, thus becoming a potential cause of human health problems (Neto et al, 2000). As discuss previously, waste cooking oil may indirectly cause sewer pipes to spills and bring problems to the maintenance operation due to the cost increase and higher paid in purification of water (Payri et al, 2004). Only a small amount of the used cooking oil is properly collected and recycled, especially in rural areas (Cardone et al, 2002). In this situation, biodiesel manufacturing may be an alternative option for reusing waste cooking oil.

According to a group of researchers stated that several factors included ventilation, temperature and heating duration during the process of frying, oil type, the oil saturation ratio, and the presence of a catalyst/antioxidant will lead to the changes in fatty acid where it converts from the cis isomer to the trans isomer when oil is repeatedly use at high temperature (> 180°C). From this research, the researchers found that chronic consumption of heated palm and soy oils for the duration of 24 weeks lead to significant increase in blood pressure. This proved that usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil can lead to human health problem. Free radicals are generated and vitamins and antioxidants levels are reduced when this oil is heated repeatedly which lead to oxidative stress (Jaarin et al., 2011). Vegetable oils that used for cooking contain excellent source of vitamin E at the concentration of between 15 and 49 mg a-tocopherol equivalents/100g. The unsaturated oxidation process of fatty acids will lead to the lost of vitamin E during heating. The food is absorbing the frying oil. The amount of the oil absorbed by the food based on the quality of the oil used for cooking process and this affect the amount of vitamin E’s net intake (Ghidurus et al., 2010).

Dang et al (2013) expressed that deep frying is commonly utilized for food preparations such as frozen per-fried foods, snack foods, and fast foods. Fried foods are more popular today in much country especially among teenagers and children. Deep frying of foods at high temperature creates the special flavor, golden brown color and crispy texture. It is fact that frying cause’s oil to undergo hydrolysis, oxidation and thermal reaction and consequently numerous byproducts such as fatty acids, alcohols, cyclic compounds, dimmers and polymers can be produced. Some products of decomposition in used oil have been identified to have adverse effects on human health, as it may have a higher chance of absorption into the fried foods. Therefore, it is important to understand and know the factors affecting the deterioration of frying oil and to monitor the quantity of products of decomposition for ensuring the quality of fried foods. The mechanism of thermal degradation of frying oil is complicated. Variables involved in the process include frying condition, replenishment of fresh oil, original ol quality, food materials, and fryer type. Cooking oil with more saturated fatty acids such as palm oil is usually more stable for frying. On the other hand, soybean oil with more unsaturated fatty acids is less stable, and decomposes easily at high frying temperature.

In Taiwan, soybean oil is one of the most commonly used cooking oils at household and is also used by many small vendors for frying. Palm oil is mostly used commercially to prepare fried potato foods. Among frying oils, those with high oleic acid content such as sunflower oil and palm oil in having better heat profile and heat stability. Moisture in foods induces and accelerates oxidation with the hydrolytic compounds. Food with high water content like potato and foods with breading or battering materials cause faster hydrolysis of frying oil. The content of total polar compound and acid value are the most predominant indicators for oil quality and are widely used in many international regulations. For public health concerns, the content of total polar compounds in frying oil is regulated at no more than 25% and 2.0 mg KOH/g, respectively in Taiwan. Determination of total polar compounds in frying oil provides a more robust measurement on the extent of deterioration in most situations due to its higher accuracy and reproducibility (Fritch, 1981). The contents of free fatty acid (FFA) and total polar compounds were commonly used for initial oil quality assurance and after-use frying oil quality assessment respectively. However, the standard analytical procedure for oil quality evaluation needs to be done in a laboratory with proper equipment by skilled technicians. It is not suitable for a small restaurant, cafeteria or small food business sector (Bansal, 2010).

In food business sectors, Food and Environmental Hygiene Department (FEHD) (2011) pronounced that this hazard can be controlled by implement of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) (Carpentier and Cerf, 2011). The purpose of GMP are to optimize the life of cooking oil for maintain food acceptability and wholesomeness, to avoid extensive oxidative decomposition and formation of polymeric compounds. The characteristic of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) includes the choosing cooking oil of good quality and consistent stability, using the properly equipment, selecting the lowest possible frying temperature, filtering cooking oil frequently to remove food particle, cleansing equipment frequently and must replacing cooking oil as needed to maintain quality. This GMP practices is important especially for food business operators. It’s their responsibilities on the general health of the Malaysian population. Moreover, the FEHD monitors the quality of cooking oil through its food surveillance programme. The samples of cooking oil for analysis will take by health Inspectors to ensure they are suitable for cooking and safe for human consumption. The public Health and Municipal Service Ordinance (Cap 132) stipulates that sale of food not fit for human consumption is an offence. Offenders shall be liable to a maximum fine $50.000 and imprisonment of six months.

Based on a research study, said that the cooking of food was one of the first steps to create new flavor and textures to make food not only nutritious but also enjoyable (Berger, (2005). Frying involves close contact between the oil used and the raw food being cooked. Oil is absorbed by the food and contributes significantly to its flavor and nutritional properties, and becomes a major component of the final product consumed. The author also recommended some data about different temperatures are required for various foods. At frying temperature, complex chemical changes take place. Initially, these changes create desirable flavor cause the gelatinization of starch, the denaturation of proteins, and some changes in the oil. Finally, the food becomes cooked. However, if the temperature or cooking time is not controlled, too much “chemistry” occurs and the food is spoilt. So the author focused on three main methods of frying such as shallow pan frying, deep frying in batch fryers, and deep frying in continuous fryers.

Shallow Pan Frying

Shallow pan frying suitable for some foods such as fried egg, it is easy to see when it sufficiently cooked. At the end of cooking, most of the oil would be absorbed into the food, the residue is discarded and poured into bottle to sell and the pan is washed. 

Continuous fryers

The production of fried snack food and convenience food on a manufacturing large scale requires continuous fryers. The size of fryers is chosen depending on the production volume and the cooking time required. Special design features are incorporated for specific product: for example, a turnover system for doughnuts and a submerged belt to hold down products and ensure complete cooking. Based on an observation of the author in the university’s canteens regarding the proper management of good practice frying oil. After training of staff and implementation of an HACCP system, a second survey found no results higher than 23% total polar materials. The training was based on the good personal hygiene, adequately done of frying, oil must be filtered, the rate of frying and turnover rate of oil must be done correctly, and the important thing was fresh oil should never added to used cooking oil. This attitude should not be practices and unacceptable.

Another interesting survey report from the members of private enterprise, local government and non-profit economic development collaborated to conduct a mini research in quantifying the waste vegetable oils (WVO) resources in the Algoma District (Demirbas, 2008). The range of oil consumed volume in one week, or one month of operation timeframe, more issues of interest exist in supporting local initiatives that would use the waste oil. The table below showed the results from several of business type in Algoma District.

This table shows the average volumes of waste oil generated by respondents and also projected waste oil generated per month for each type of restaurant in Algoma District. Steak House, Fast Food and Italian food generated the largest portion of WVO among the survey. Another issue involves franchise restaurants. The author stated that this survey provides a profile of total used cooking oil that produced in Algoma. It also identified a general positive public response to the idea of a local biodiesel initiative. In ensuring for better data collection, this research should be continuing with larger staff and food business restaurant operators. The author end the writing with word there is always room for improvement. In my opinion, this review paper provide good basis for future study of this resource (Macleod, 2009).

Recycled or waste oils have evolved as very popular raw materials for the production of biodiesel, as it is are inexpensive and offer the potential environment benefits of using substances which would have to be discarded of. The first references to the utilization of waste oils was made by Rudolf Diesel (1911), who reported on successful engine tests for methyl-ethyl-, and1-butylesters produced from used cooking oils (Murugesan, 2009). At the same time, recycled cooking oils were also studied as raw material for biodiesel production by M. Mittlebach, who later developed a commercial process for converting waste oil from households and restaurants as well as fatty (Mittelbach, 2006). In Austria, recycled frying oil is now an established alternative source of fatty material for the production of biofuels. A large number of articles published on the use of waste oils as raw materials for biodiesel production impressively illustrate the growing importance of the feedstock world-wide.  A research conducted by Hossain and Boyce (2009) related the biodiesel production from waste sunflower cooking oil as an environmental recycling process and renewable energy. The current feedstock of production of biodiesel is vegetable oil, animal fat, and micro algal oil. Vegetable oil is currently being used as a sustainable commercial feedstock. Unfortunately, only sunflower, palm oil, soybean, rapeseed, and peanut oils are preferred as potential alternative fuels for diesel engines among more than 350 identified oil-bearing crops (Demirbas, 2007).

The increase of virgin vegetable oil price has leaded the problems to the biofuel manufacturing industry. An option with great potential such as used cooking oil recycling, which includes a variety of processes like pyrolysis and catalytic cracking, designed to transform used cooking oil into hydrocarbon products for use in the preparation for refined chemicals or fuels. From this review, this author aims to determine some properties of used cooking for the production of biofuel. Preliminary analysis of used cooking oil properties via GCMS using capillary column shows n-Hexadecanoic acid and Oleic acid as the major compounds present in the used frying oil. The analysis for determination of volatile and moisture content with 3 replicates show an average  of 0.02% moisture and volatile content, which the experimental procedure was based on MPOB Test Methods (Fukuda et al, 2001).

Cooking oil recycling or purification companies also play a significant role in ensures the quality and also origin of the oils they use. They also only can process cooking oils supplied by certificated collection/transport companies. Cooking oil purification or recycling companies should be obliged to establish a quality control system which necessary for traceability of the end product to obtained. They must have legal license and appropriate certification. In addition, the companies must analyses all the potential risks involved in their operations such as storage of cooking oils, purification treatments, handling, storage and transport of the recycled oil, as well as the operations process include collectors and transporters to ensuring the quality and safety of the purified products they will be delivering. The companies must register of all their activities, with quantity data relating to the total flow of fatty materials. They must have a suitable system for making tanks, drums and other containers to ensure the type of product contained can be identified at any time and errors avoided that could lead to break in tracing the end product. Any variations observed must be recorded with as much information as possible, the batches must set aside and the relevant authorities must always be informed. Besides that, the fatty waste generated in the process of purification or cleaning tanks and containers must be disposed in an appropriate manner, bearing in mind its contamination level. For example, waste from tank cleaning, if it is good quality, may be used in feed provided its safety and quality is strictly controlled. Any waste generated must also be recorded and used for a purpose suited to its level of contamination.


Conclusion

Cooking oil is compulsory to be involved in cooking purposes. Most of food preparation will need oil for cooking the raw food. Since the cooking oil is advices to reduce in repeating usage, the attitude are still significant in reducing the financial issues and affordable factors. However, waste cooking oil can be transferable into benefit usage like biodiesel. On the other hands, the product of biodiesel is more environmental friendly and less harm to human health. Widely research should be continuously carry out to investigate, design, define, and determine the best solution for the issues and problems in cooking oil management.


References

1. Akademi Science Government (February 09, 2012). Prioritizing Policy Options to Prevent Obesity: Cooking Oil Subsidy. Retrieved from www.moh.gov.my

2. Artman, N.R. (1969). The chemical and biological properties of heated and oxidized fats. Adv Lipid Res, 7: 245-330.

3. Azman, A., Khalid, B. A. K., & Ima-Nirwana, S. (2001). The effects of vitamin E on bodyweight and fat mass in intact and ovariectomized female rats. Medical Journal of Islamic Academic of Sciences, 14, 125-138

4. Bansal, G., Zhou, W., Barlow, P. J., Joshi, P., Neo, F. L., & Lo, H. L. (2010). Evaluation of commercially available rapid test kits for the determination of oil quality in deep-frying operations. Food chemistry, 121(2), 621-626.

5. Berger, K. G. (2005). The use of palm oil in frying. Malaysian Palm Oil Promotion Council

6. Cardone, M., Prati, M. V., Rocco, V., Seggiani, M., Senatore, A., & Vitolo, S. (2002). Brassica carinata as an alternative oil crop for the production of biodiesel in Italy: engine performance and regulated and unregulated exhaust emissions. Environmental science & technology, 36(21), 4656-4662.

7. Carpentier, B., & Cerf, O. (2011). Review—Persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in foodindustry equipment and premises. International journal of food microbiology, 145(1), 1-8.

8. Castellanelli, C., & Mello, C. (2007). Analyzes of the used fried oil under environmental perspective and its possibilities for production of biodiesel.Department of Production Engineering, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil.

9. Dang, T. H., Chen, B. H., & Lee, D. J. (2013). Application of kaolin-based catalysts in biodiesel production via transesterification of vegetable oils in excess methanol. Bioresource technology, 145, 175-181.

10. Demirbas, A. (2008). Biodiesel (pp. 111-119). Springer London

11. Demirbas, A. (2007). Biodiesel from sunflower oil in supercritical methanol with calcium oxide. Energy Conversion and Management, 48(3), 937-941.

12. Fritsch, C. W. (1981). Measurements of frying fat deterioration: a brief review. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 58(3), 272-274.

13. Fukuda, H., Kondo, A., & Noda, H. (2001). Biodiesel fuel production by transesterification of oils. Journal of bioscience and bioengineering, 92(5), 405-416.

14. Ghidurus, M. I. H. A. E. L. A., Turtoi, M., Boskou, G., Niculita, P. E. T. R. U., & Stan, V. A. S. L. I. C. A. (2010). Nutritional and health aspects related to frying (I). Romanian Biotechnological Letters, 15(6), 5675-5682.

15. Hamasaki, K., Tajima, H., Takasaki, K., Satohira, K., Enomoto, M., & Egawa, H. (2001). Utilization of waste vegetable oil methyl ester for diesel fuel (No. 2001-01-2021). SAE Technical Paper.

16. Hossain, A. B. M. S., & Boyce, A. N. (2009). Biodiesel production from waste sunflower cooking oil as an environmental recycling process and renewable energy. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 15(4), 313-318.

17. Jaarin, K., Mustafa, M. R., & Leong, X. F. (2011). The effects of heated vegetable oils on blood pressure in rats. Clinics, 66(12), 2125-2132.

18. Kulkarni, M. G., & Dalai, A. K. (2006). Waste cooking oil an economical source for biodiesel: a review. Industrial & engineering chemistry research,45(9), 2901-2913.

19. Leong, X. F., Mustafa, M. R., Das, S., & Jaarin, K. (2010). Association of elevated blood pressure and impaired vasorelaxation in experimental Sprague-Dawley rats fed with heated vegetable oil. Lipids in Health and Disease, 9(1), 1.

20. MacLeod, R., & Assessment, R. V. A. C. (2009). Waste vegetable oil survey report. Science enterprise Algoma, USA.

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Guidance and Counseling: An Experience of Practicum

Abstract

Guidance and Counseling (B&K) are important when conducting teaching and learning process. Different students implies different attitude. Nonetheless, the difficult problems in facing negative attitude are the students that involve in personal issues, especially with family. Several problems are identified among parents and childrens, namely separated parents or divorced, financial problems, fully focus on working, high expectation in education, and pressuring the students to undertaken dislike matters. Hence, students will behave badly and negative attitude in the classroom, which will affect the process of teaching and learning process. Based on the researcher experiences, teacher play an important role in overcome and solving the problems faced by the students with applying appropriate therapy towards them selves. If the teacher is ‘fail’ to manage and solve the students’ problems, then the students may ‘fail’ in their future. However, if the teacher successfully helping the students to overcome the problems, then the students may become the future leader to lead the world towards positively impact.

Keywords: Guidance and Counseling, parents and children, issues and problems, positive and negative impacts

Citation of Article:
Ping, O.W., & Hua, A.K. (2016). Guidance and Counseling: An Experience of Practicum. International Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science, 1(4), 89-95.


Introduction

Guidance and Counseling Services (B&K) is a profession that play an important role in helping people to get to know, understand and explore our-inner-self in order to adapt to the environment that is constantly undergoing rapid changes. The service began in the 1800s in the United States that aims to meet the requirements of extremely changes in industrialization and urbanization. This current situation proved that rapid modernization leading to variety of issues and problems appear especially in terms of social and economic development. When the social values are ignored, this causes the relationship in family to be loose and cause separation. This situation prompted the program of B&K emerged that appear to help to resolve the problems faced by giving advice and guidance. There are many books that published about the counseling and guidance. In 1898, Jesse B. Davis has started counseling services to students about educational and career (Aubrey, 1982). He was able to guide students to explore on their own potential. Guidance and Counseling Services in Malaysia began in the early of 20th century, but the development is in slow motion. However, it flourished in the mid to late 20th century. Until today, it is being recognized in all areas of employment in Malaysia.

In recent years, we are often surprised by the issues of violence in schools are exposed in the newspapers every day. Various steps and strategies have been implemented, yet the problems cannot be solved completely. Definitely, it becomes a serious issues and problems that need to concern and seems to be unstoppable. One of the examples is the death of a student name Mohd. Hadzrin Mohamad, after an eight-day of coma due to beaten up by a group of teenagers because of a scramble lover in 2009 (Bakar, 2009). This issue happens near to the school in Cheras, Malaysia. News reported in the Sinar Harian Online (2015), where a student is being beaten by friends causing the student to become difficult in standing and walking. Sadly, the problem happens in the classroom and there are no action is taken by the teachers when students are complained about the incident. What is the main reason to cause this problem to happen? Who are needed to be blame for?


Discussion

In practicum for phase 3 at National Chinese Schools of Wen Khai, the researcher had an interview with the counseling to know about the issues and problems that might face by the students in the school, how to identify the students who have problems, counseling skills and theory commonly applied to help the students (as a clients) who have problems. Through this interview, researcher realized that the problem of B&K can be divided into several categories such as academic, psychosocial, family, personal, disciplinary, and drugs. Commonly, the problems faced by the students of this school are academic, psychosocial, family and personal. The main factors to cause this occurrence of problem are family background where most of the students came from families with moderately or in poor condition. In other words, the financial of the family become issues and problems that may affect the children. On the other hands, the serious problem exist in the school is a problem in academics. The problems that involve with academic are almost every classes have students with learning problems (or refer as slow learner) and some of them are categorized as ‘special needs’. Another factor are pressuring from families where they are forcing the children to study causing the students to lose interest in learning. According to the guidance teachers, one of the students who have hearing impairment has shown a stubborn attitude and contributed to discipline problems. This is because the students are being pressure by the mother to study and will get beaten if the student are ignored on the mother. Indirectly, these students have lost interest in learning and demonstrate protest against the actions of his mother by making a mess in the classroom, and reject the teacher's instructions. The situation became worse year by year due to students protest and showing negative attitude in school.

In additional, family and personal (refer to parents it selves) problems is also a common problem faced by guidance teachers in school. Majority students have family problems, where most of the parents are separated or divorced. This situation will bring negative impact to the students, especially to their attitude where they will behave badly (due to the protest attitude) and likely doing mistake in school. On the other hands, ‘professional parents’ will also affect the students in term of family love. These because the parents are too busy with working (job) and the time are spending more on the job. The expectations by the family towards their children will indirectly pressuring the students to cause them to become stress and emotional instability. Based on the experience of guidance teachers, there was a student in standard 2 who are always crying and looking for the mother to accompany when in the classroom. Through observation and survey, the student are depress due to pressuring from the mother to go to tuition, even the student are dislike. This action will cause the student emotionally unstable and often cried when they are force to entering the school tuition class or private tuition class.

Through an interview with the guidance teachers, researcher is realizing some process and procedure when sending the students who have problems to counseling sessions. The class teacher will have a short discussion with guidance teachers about the problems face by students before sending them to counseling session. In official procedure, the teacher is compulsory to fill the registration forms provided as a record before counseling session start. Afterwards, counseling teacher with have a short chat with the students or having a therapy session to identify the problems faced by students. During the conversation, the counseling teacher is encouraged to practice ‘caring and love’ attitude, as same vision with the Ministry of Education (MOE) through ‘Surat Siaran KPPM Bilangan 4 Tahun 2012’ for the teachers to adopted an attitude of caring in school (Atan, 2013). Normally, counseling teacher will conduct a talk sessions with students in a short period of time between 15 minutes but over and over again. In terms of the content in the conversation, the teacher will encourage the students to tell the problems encountered and give encouragement and support to students. In every each month, there will be a mentor session and mentor will celebrate birthday with a mentee and give little gifts to show appreciation to these students. Indirectly, the belief towards teachers will exist in students and teachers are easily to help the students when they have problems.

Theory Approach

Next, researcher will also inquire about the theory that is often applied by guidance teachers when conducting individual counseling sessions. According to the guidance teachers, the theory that is always used is Client Centered Theory, Theory of Gestalt Approach, Behavior Theory, Therapy and Art Therapy play. The Client-Centered Theory is the most selected by guidance teachers in giving guidance to the students who have problems because this theory is person-centered approach where the session are in the form of therapy that focus on the client experience towards themselves. In this theory, the role of the mentor is not important where the students get to know their own problems with the help of guidance teachers. This theory is highly dependent on the quality of relationships between teachers and students. Guidance teachers would build Rapo with students before asking the problems faced by students. The main purpose is to ensure that students have the trust toward guidance teachers so that the students will feel comfortable when telling the problems. Therefore, guidance teachers will also need to present Core Condition, where it consists of empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard. In additional, this therapy uses self-healing process in which students can make their own decision properly and correctly about the problems faced by the teacher.

Next, guidance teachers stated that often used the theory of Gestalt approach developed by Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Koehler and Max Wertheimer (Brauner & Scholl, 2000). Gestalt is from the word of German means "whole". Thus, every behavior and experience is organized into Gestalt. This approach is concern on the present, at here and now. During counseling sessions conducted, guidance teachers will use questioning skills to guide students in knowing and understanding their own personal and aware on what is happening at the moment. According to this theory, conflicts will arise when a deadlock exists between students with the surrounding nature and this will cause them to avoid in dealing with the issues and problems. For example, based on teacher experiences, a student will cry for all day and searching for mother when she need to attend an extra classes at the school. The conflict in this case is the students dislike to attend the extra classes, and the deadlock start to exist when it is pressuring by family. These situations will cause the students to become moody and silent in the classroom. Therefore, the guidance teachers have been used this therapy through telling a story is likely can help the students to told the problems they faced.

Continuously, the Theory Behavior theory stated that individual behavior is a response to a set of events, experiences or stimuli that learned in a person. Members of behavior use various methods to change individual behavior. According to the guidance teachers, using this theory will provides positive and negative reinforcement to students. For example, a student with hyperactive is class will be given rewarded when the student are behave like what are the teacher needed, and this must need to be agreed by both parties like teacher and student. In additional, guidance teachers will also apply the emotional teaching method to older student because if scolded by the teacher, students will cry. Therefore, teachers will receive an alternative emotional response to emotional reactions that are less desirable.

Counseling skills are often applied by teacher is a behavior for paying attention to aimed at creating respect and secure for the students when the conversation in solving problems between the two individuals run easily and smoothly. Therefore, the guidance teachers should build good repo between students before entering the problem. In behavioral component in paying attention, guidance teacher should take note of the position of the body, facial expressions, eye resistance, and minimum impulse to speak in attracting the students. Position of the body need guidance teachers tilted forward slightly because this posture shows students that the teacher guidance keen to hear what the teacher might want to say to the students. Indirectly, more students feel comfortable to share their problems.

Other than body posture, face expressions also play an important role in providing guidance. Face expressions of a teacher should always be radiant and smile, where it shows that the teacher is willing to accept and offer assistance to students in solving problems. Guidance teachers are also need to opposite between eye by eye with the student because it shows teachers are interested in listening to the hearts of students in solving the problems; but if students do not feel comfortable with the teacher's guidance resistance then the teacher should divert the eyes to other part so that students do not feel stressed while sharing his problems. In conducting counseling sessions, teachers should be encouraged to talk to a minimum but maximizing in listening. The minimum in chit-chatting are including having some gestures, head nods, single words and others flexibility movements because it shows that teachers are listening carefully and want to help these students.

Listening and questioning skills are also important in providing guidance to students. According to Carl Rogers (1951), guidance teachers must listen carefully in understanding their problems better and able to do something positive to help students solve the problem. In additional, when teachers have a good listening skill and this will be more help especially the teacher that needs to ask necessarily questions to guide students in making decisions and avoid asking less important questions. Through listening and questioning skills, teachers can understand students with a deeper and receive more useful information for further discussion. Hence, guidance teachers should use questioning skills to obtain information that can help by asking open-ended questions as it will facilitate student to told the problem in a clearer picture of the problem to the teacher guidance in order to help students more easily and effectively.

Last but not least, the reflection-feeling skills are also play an important role in guidance teacher. Reflection feeling is intended to improve student awareness of the problem arises whether the student itself are wrong, or vice versa. Indirectly, students have ability to evaluate the problem and find a solution to any support teacher guidance. Guidance teachers have to do the conclusion with what was discussed during the counseling sessions so that students know the things that have been discussed and tried to take action, and the suggestion proposed by the guidance teachers to students will either can help or not. Finally, guidance teachers play an important role in helping students who had problems so that they do not feel neglected and engage in negative symptom.

An Experience of Researcher in Practicum: A Case Study

During the process of teaching and learning (P&P) is carried out, researcher found that one of the students who are in class are love to run in the classroom during the class session. The students love to disturb in class and cause the process of P&P cannot continue as planned because researcher have to always to keep the eye on the students. At the same time, researcher has to make sure that the student will not have any accident in the class. The students are always running around in class and talked with his friend. There are various complain from other students about the naughty student that love to disturb and cause trouble when P&P going on. However, when researcher are scolded to the students, immediately the student turn to be aggressive started showing the negative behavior such as hitting the researcher as class teacher, throwing other students thing out of the classroom and so on.

To overcome this situation, researcher take an alternative by interviewed several teachers who teach the class about the student to obtain more information. Most of the teachers said that the students have serious behavioral problems and they had to take action by penalty on this student. Through interviews with classroom teachers, are also said that the student behave in a way due to the family issues and problems. The parents are putting a high expectation on their children and this will cause pressuring to the student. If the students are refused to study hard, the parents may beat them up. This action will cause negative behavior in the students and they will show negative and protest attitude in the school. In additional, teachers already had discussed with the students’ parents (the keeper), but the discussion led to worst situation where the student was beaten by the parents in front of the teacher. Due to this drastic action, the student looks back to the parents with feeling of anger and hate. Hence, researcher is work hard by trying to build a good relationship with the students to identify the problems.

In additional, researcher went to library to find several books that have related to counseling and therapy, and also doing some searching in website for information on appropriate therapy to help the student to sort out the problems that being faced. After searching for information, researcher decided to apply ‘play while learning’ therapy because it is believe to provide an appropriate situation for children to express themselves and experience the situation through play (Ping & Hua, 2015a). Children are easily to express their feeling when they expose to ‘play’ condition. ‘Playing while learning’ becomes an important element to children to socially interaction with the surrounding people. The aim of ‘play while learning’ therapy is to reduce behavioral and emotional problems and able to control the student to behave normally (Ping & Hua, 2015b). ‘Play while learning’ therapy can be divided into two types, namely "non-directive" that pioneered by Virginia Axline and "directive" was introduced by Carl Rogers (Blunden, 2001). According to the Association of Play Therapy state that play therapy can help clients to prevent or solve psychosocial problems and enable them to have optimum growth (Parham & Fazio, 2008).

Based on information gathered from various sources, researcher has made an analysis on the information. Again, researcher has made an observation on the students to analyze the information that successfully gathered. As a result, the students are likely to experience tremendous pressure that causes him to lose interest in learning and behave negatively due to the family that are also behave the same way. Indirectly, this student had to imitate the behavior of his family, especially when he was angry or dissatisfied about something. The main reason for the student to disturb others friend when P&P process is to attract the teachers’ attention. This could be happen due to lack attention from the family. Therefore, this student react negatively is to get attention from the teacher and his family. However, this student is only listening to several teachers that he prefers and like it.

Continuously, researcher also conducted a survey on the students where researcher appointed him (the naughty student) as leader to collect the books from his friends and give positive reinforcement when it behaves as desired. The results of this study found that the students' behavior is seemed to have improvement but it does not last long. Next, researcher also use ‘play while learning’ therapy to help the student to identify the problems as ‘playing’ situation is a therapy used to help students who struggle with mental disorders and unable to solve the problem properly. In play therapy, usually students will communicate each other and feelings in a more natural way through play activities than through verbal communication. In this therapy, the teacher is able to identify the problems faced by the student because students will play based on their life experiences. When playing, researcher can identify themes and patterns, and help students to reveal the meaning of the game. Indirectly, the teacher can give proper guidance when students have identified the cause of such behavior. Researcher will give guidance to the students how to manage relationships and conflicts that are more appropriate and give advice to him. The results of play therapy can reduce students' concern and anxiety over something as the student has expressed the feeling through playing activities. It's very difficult for students to express their conscience during oral. Normally, the students will behave negatively and being rude to the surroundings.

Researcher applies the ‘play while learning’ therapy to understand the real problems faced by students, with the hopes that this therapy can change student behavior little by little. Firstly, researcher builds Rapo with students so that they adhere to the commands and he can benefit from the play therapy. To build the Rapo, researcher has to spent time during the break at the cafeteria and chit-chatting with the students so that they feel comfortable. At the same time, researcher are also provided an opportunity for the student to help teacher in picking up a book and praised him in front of all his friends as positive reinforcement for him to behave positive. Indirectly, every student will believe in researcher and feel comfortable to talk or express feelings that are hidden.

Next, researcher will set the appropriate type of play therapy with some problem students to this therapy so that an effective impact can be done towards the students. Play therapy is therapy that researcher use "non-directive" where students could play alone. Through this therapy, researcher was able to observe how students are playing with the selection of the materials used, and may also reflect the difficulties faced by the students. Researcher will take 30 minutes to carry out this treatment. In additional, these materials need to play with appropriate age of students. During therapy sessions conducted, students are allowed to make the choice of materials required and play according to their wishes. Researcher will be watching what are the students will be doing with materials chosen and record it so that researcher can assess the extent of play therapy can help students in reshaping her behavior. Before the therapy session is over, researcher will hold a brief discussion with the students and will asked some questions why he or she chose these kinds of materials. Researcher also used the technique of reflection to respond to the comments of these students to play therapy are ongoing.

Lastly, researcher will decide whether to continue or terminate the session. If continue, researcher will inform the students when the next session will conduct and give the students a little work he or she needs to do, such as not to disturb the student during the R & D is conducted. If the students are manages to do as instructed, then researcher will reward positive behavior that he or she has motivated him to change the negative behaviors to positive behavior.


Conclusion

Based on the experience of researcher conducting practicum at primary school, researcher does opinion that many students will face a lot of issues and problems. The bigger problems will be involved with family. ‘How the parents teach the children, then the students will react as the same with what they are train’. Hence, if there is no problem in family background, then the students will success in the learning process and finish the study until a higher level of education. However, if the parents are treating badly to their children, then the student will show negative attitude to the other students and teachers. Therefore, teacher plays an important role in overcome and solving the problems faced by the students with applying appropriate therapy towards them selves. ‘It is not difficult when using accurate formulae to calculate and solve a question’. If the teacher is ‘fail’ to manage and solve the students’ problems, then the students may ‘fail’ in their future. However, if the teacher is successfully to help in solving the students’ problems, then the students may become the future leader to lead the world towards positively impact.

References

1. Atan, N. J. M. I. A. (April 2013). A Guidance and Counseling Model Practiced Within Malaysian Schools. International Journal of Education and Research. 1(4), 1-12.

2. Aubrey, J. (1982). Brief lives: a modern English version. Boydell & Brewer.

3. Bakar, S.A. (February 25, 2009). Jangan biarkan gengsterisme pelajar berleluasa. Utusan Online.Retrieved from

http://ww1.utusan.com.my/utusan/info.asp?y=2009&dt=0225&pub=Utusan_Malaysia&sec=Rencana&pg=re_09.htm

4. Blunden, P. (2001). The therapeutic use of. Occupational Therapy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 67.

5. Brauner, E., & Scholl, W. (2000). Editorial: The information processing approach as a perspective for groups research. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 3(2), 115-122.

6. Parham, L. D., & Fazio, L. S. (Eds.). (2008). Play in occupational therapy for children. Mosby.

7. Ping, O. W., & Hua, A. K. (2015a). Effectiveness of Division Wheel in Basic Mathematics Operation Case Study: Primary School Perspective. IOSR Journal of Research & Methodin Education5 (3), 52-56.

8. Ping, O.W., & Hua, A.K. (2015b). Mathematical Operations from Teacher to Student: A Case Study of Applied Division Wheel in Primary School. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research. 3(9), 82-86.

9. Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory (p.491). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

10. Sinar Harian Online (Ogos 21, 2015). Cedera dipukul pelajar senior. Retrieved from

http://www.sinarharian.com.my/edisi/kelantan/cedera-dipukul-pelajar-senior-1.421699

Pengenalan Rangkakerja Metodologi dalam Kajian Penyelidikan: Satu Kajian Literatur

Abstrak

Kajian penyelidikan merupakan kaedah akademik yang diaplikasikan dalam dunia sebenar bagi menyelesaikan masalah berkaitan dengan masyarakat. Proses penyelidikan dalam mencapai objektif kajian mempunyai rangkakerja lengkap termasuk metodologi. Metodologi ialah kaedah digunakan untuk mengutip dan mengumpul data melalui tatacara efektif bagi menjawab permasalahan kajian. Metodologi dibahagikan kepada tiga peringkat iaitu proses perancangan, proses aplikasi dan proses analisis. Kajian literatur rangkakerja metodologi ini mengutamakan proses perancangan yang melibatkan reka bentuk kajian penyelidikan yang boleh dibahagikan kepada eksperimental dan bukan eksperimental. Kaedah eksperimental boleh dikategorikan kepada kajian eksperimental benar dan kajian kuasi eksperimental. Kaedah bukan eksperimental dibahagikan kepada kajian tinjauan, kajian lapangan, kajian kes, kajian tindakan dan kajian sejarah. Kebanyakan kaedah eksperimental digunakan dalam bidang sains tulen, manakala kaedah bukan eksperimental digunakan dalam bidang sains sosial. Walau bagaimanapun, kedua-dua kaedah masih relevan untuk diaplikasikan ke dalam bidang-bidang kajian tertentu agar dapat mencapai objektif dan hipotesis kajian. Oleh itu, metodologi wajib dirancang dan diaplikasikan dengan betul, tepat dan jitu supaya proses sebelum dan semasa mengutip data serta selepas mengumpul data tidak mengalami sebarang kesalahan, kesilapan dan kecuaian yang boleh menjejaskan kajian peneyelidikan.

Kata Kunci: objektif, hipotesis, perancangan, aplikasi, analisis


Abstract
Research study is an academic methods applied in real world in solving problems associated with the society. The research process in achieving objectives of study will have a complete framework including methodology. Methodology can be defined as method used to collec and compile data through effective procedures in resulting the study problems. Methodology is divided into three stages, namely the planning process, application process, and analysis process. This literature review of methodology framework prioritizes on the planning process that involve with research study design, which can be divided into an experimental and non-experimental. Experimental methods can be categorized into real-experimental studies and quasi-experimental studies. Meanwhile, non-experimental can be divided into experimental survey, field studies, case studies, action studies and historical studies. Mostly experimental methods are used in pure science and non-experimental methods used in social sciences. However, both methods are still relevant to be applied into certain areas of study in order to achieve the objectives and hypothesis. Therefore, the methodology are compulsory to be designed and applied properly, precisely and accurately so that the process of collecting data in the period of before, during and after collection will not involve with ant errors, mistakes and carelessness that may affect the research study.

Keywords: objectives, hypotheses, design, application, analysis


Citation of Article:
Hua, A.K. (2016). Pengenalan Rangkakerja Metodologi dalam Kajian Penyelidikan: Satu Kajian Literatur. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 1(2), 17-24.


Pengenalan

Kajian penyelidikan merupakan kaedah atau metodologi yang diaplikasikan ke dalam dunia sebenar bagi menyelesaikan sesuatu persoalan atau masalah yang berkait dengan masyarakat atau populasi manusia. Dengan kata lain, penyelidikan boleh didefinasikan sebagai mencari fakta atau kebenaran mengenai sesuatu perkara atau menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah dengan menguji hipotesis atau objektif, dan membina atau merekacipta produk baru yang memberikan keselesaan kepada masyarakat. Dalam penyelidikan, metodologi merupakan salah satu konsep yang penting dalam menentukan pencapaian kajian tersebut kerana pengumpulan data-data ini memerlukan kaedah yang betul, tepat, jitu dan benar. Metodologi merujuk kepada kaedah yang paling sesuai untuk digunakan bagi menjalankan penyelidikan dan menentukan tatacara yang efektif bagi menjawab permasalahan kajian. Kajian metodologi boleh dikategorikan kepada tiga peringkat, iaitu proses perancangan, proses aplikasi dan proses analisis. Proses perancangan boleh melibatkan kepada pembentukan hipotesis dan pemilihan reka bentuk; manakala proses aplikasi pula melibatkan kepada kaedah pengumpulan data, pemilihan sampel, ujian rintis serta proses analisis.

Proses perancangan merupakan proses yang berlangsung dari suatu keadaan awal sampai suatu keadaan masa depan, dimana proses-proses ini berlangsung dengan kegiatan-kegiatan yang dilakukan adalah sangat jelas membanyangi apa yang telah diaturkan (Snyder et al, 1979). Dengan kata lain, proses perancangan adalah suatu perkara yang diatur dan dirancang bermula daripada awal hingga akhir. Setiap langkah kajian yang dilakukan adalah perkara yang telah dibayangi. Secara umumnya, proses perancangan melibatkan kepada beberapa langkah seperti permulaan, persiapan, pengajuan usul, evaluasi dan tindakan. Jika proses perancangan dalam kajian penyelidikan pula, ianya boleh dikategorikan melalui pembentukan hipotesis dan pemilihan reka bentuk. Pembentukan hipotesis merupakan proses paling awal, dimana ianya boleh diertikan sebagai rumusan jawapan atau kesimpulan yang bersifat sementara yang harus diuji dengan data-data yang terkumpul melalui kegiataan penyelidikan.

Sebagai contohnya, apabila berlaku sesuatu perkara yang menjejaskan aktiviti manusia, maka perkara tersebut boleh diselesaikan melalui kajian penyelidikan yang mewujudkan pernyataan hipotesis-hipotesis yang berkaitan. Kewujudan hipotesis ini akan seterusnya membawa kepada pernyataan objektif kajian dalam usaha menjawap persoalan-persoalan yang timbul dalam kajian tersebut. Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat penyelidikan yang tidak menggunakan hipotesis untuk menjalankan kajian, tetapi hanya melibatkan objektif dalam merungkai sebarang permasalahan. Selepas hipotesis dan objektif kajian diutarakan, reka bentuk penyelidikan akan menjadi proses kedua penting dalam menentukan kejayaan kajian tersebut. Reka bentuk penyelidikan boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kategori iaitu eksperimental dan bukan eksperimental (Chua, 2011). Kedua-dua kategori ini boleh dibahagikan kepada kajian eksperimental benar, kajian kuasi experimental, kajian tinjauan, kajian lapangan, kajian kes, kajian tindakan dan kajian sejarah (Chua, 2011). Kajian-kajian ini akan dihuraikan selanjutnya dalam perbincangan.

Proses aplikasi boleh dirujuk sebagai proses kaedah yang digunakan untuk mengutip dan mengumpul data untuk analisis. Proses aplikasi dibahagikan kepada kaedah pengumpulan data, pemilihan sampel, dan ujian rintis. Proses mengumpul data, memilih sampel dan menjalankan ujian rintis akan dilakukan apabila penentuan data-data telah ditetapkan. Data-data ini boleh terdiri daripada data primer atau data sekunder. Data primer adalah data yang berasal dari sumber asli atau pertama (Yusof, 2003). Manakala data sekunder pula adalah data yang telah dikumpulkan oleh pengkaji lain (Marican, 2005). Dengan kata lain, data primer adalah merujuk pengumpulan data di kawasan lapangan dan menganalisis data mentah (raw data) untuk menghasilkan keputusan. Manakala data sekunder pula adalah merujuk kepada penyelidik yang mengutip data daripada jabatan dan institusi kerajaan, sektor swasta, pertubuhan bukan kerajaan (NGO), atau melalui kaedah lain yang telah menyediakan maklumat penuh tentang kajian penyelidikan yang lepas. Oleh itu, penentuan data primer atau data sekunder amat penting dan perlu dinyatakan oleh penyelidik sebelum kajian yang seterusnya dapat dijalankan.

Selepas penentuan dalam pengutipan data dilakukan, pemilihan sampel akan menjadi langkah kedua penting dalam proses aplikasi. Sampel yang dicadangkan oleh penyelidik perlu mempunyai perkaitan dengan objektif penyelidikan. Sebagai contohnya, penyelidikan kuantitatif dan penyelidikan kualitatif mempunyai perbezaan dari segi jumlah sampel kajian. Jika merujuk kepada bidang sains sosial, minimum jumlah sampel bagi penyelidikan kuantitatif adalah sebanyak 384 dengan jumlah populasi 1000000 (krejcie dan Morgan, 1970). Manakala minimum jumlah sampel bagi penyelidikan kualitatif adalah sebanyak 15 (Bertaux, 1981; Guest et al, 2006).

Proses ujian rintis pula akan dijalankan selepas menetapkan kaedah mengumpul data dan pemilihan sampel. Ujian rintis boleh dirujuk sebagai satu ujian kecil yang perlu dijalankan untuk menilai kebolehlaksanaan, masa, kos, kesan berbalik atau kesan buruk dan saiz kesannya dalam usaha untuk memperbaiki reka bentuk kajian sebelum melaksanakan penyelidikan sebenar. Oleh itu, ujian rintis akan membantu penyelidik dalam menentukan data-data yang dikumpul boleh dilaksanakan untuk menjalankan proses analisis dan mencapai objektif atau hipotesis. Sebagai contohnya, dalam bidang sains sosial, terutama penyelidikan kuantitatif, ujian rintis akan dijalankan dalam jumlah sekurang-kurangnya 30 sampel bagi menilai kebolehpercayaan dan kebolehlaksanaan soal selidik yang direka. Sekiranya ujian rintis menunjukkan perubahan yang negatif dan boleh menggagalkan pencapaian objektif, maka reka bentuk soal selidik perlu dibaiki dan diubah bagi mendapat satu gambaran menyeluruh yang boleh menjawab hipotesis kajian penyelidikan.

Proses analisis merupakan proses terakhir dalam rangkakerja metodologi bagi sesuatu kajian penyelidikan. Secara umumnya, proses analisis akan melibatkan alat atau perkakas bagi membantu mendapatkan jawapan atau keputusan yang tepat. Sebagai contohnya, penyelidikan kuantitatif akan melibatkan jumlah data yang banyak (contohnya dalam 400 sampel soal selidik) dan data-data ini akan dimasukkan ke dalam komputer (merujuk kepada alat) untuk disimpan melalui sistem-sistem (merujuk kepada perkakas) yang sesuai seperti SPSS atau ‘Statistical Package for Social Sciences’. Analisis boleh dikaitkan dengan min, mod, median, dan sishan piawai. Manakala analisis asas pula boleh melibatkan dengan ANOVA, khi kuasa dua, kolerasi, ujian T, dan lain-lain. Analisis lanjutan terdiri daripada analisis faktor, analisis regrasi, analisis SEM dan sebagainya (Chua, 2011). Analisis analisis ini boleh dilakukan selepas pengutipan data yang mencukupi dan memenuhi syarat-syarat tertentu bagi menjalankan analisis asas dan lanjutan.


Perbincangan

Kajian penyelidikan yang berasaskan kepada literatur rangkakerja metodologi akan membincangkan tentang proses perancangan melalui reka bentuk penyelidikan yang membezakan antara kuantitatif dan kualitatif dalam menentukan kajian-kajian yang sesuai untuk digunakan.

Dalam kajian penyelidikan, reka bentuk boleh melibatkan kepada dua kaedah utama, iaitu eksperimental dan bukan eksperimental. Secara umumnya, kajian eksperimental dan bukan eksperimental boleh dikaitkan dengan penyelidikan kualitatif atau kuantitatif, dimana tujuan untuk menjalankan kajian adalah berbeza mengikut kaedah yang ditentukan. Kajian eksperimental boleh dirujuk sebagai penyelidikan yang dilakukan untuk memahami perhubungan antara variabel-variabel melalui pengenalpastian dan pengukuran yang tepat dan teliti (Chua, 2011), dimana ianya dilakukan dengan memerhati kesan perubahan yang berlaku pada variabel bersandar apabila variabel bebas melakukan perubahan terhadap variabel bersandar, sebagai contohnya tempoh bagi air yang dipanaskan akan disejat lebih cepat berbanding dengan air yang diletakkan pada suhu bilik. Hal ini kerana air yang dipanaskan mempunyai kandungan haba yang tinggi dan berupaya untuk menjadi wap melalui proses penyejatan. Oleh itu, kajian eksperimental akan kerap terlibat dalam kajian sains tulen, dan ianya boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kategori, iaitu kajian eksperimental benar dan kajian kuasi eksperimental. Terdapat beberapa elemen kajian eksperimental yang dapat disenaraikan seperti variabel bebas, variabel mengganggu, dan peringkat rawatan (Chua, 2011).

Dalam variabel bebas, ianya boleh dibahagikan kepada variabel rawatan dan variabel kawalan. Variabel rawatan bermaksud variabel yang boleh menyebabkan perubahan kepada variabel bersandar, dimana ianya dikaitkan dengan perhubungan sebab-akibat (cause-effect relationship). Contohnya, adakah Pizza (variabel bebas) akan mempengaruhi minat dan selera (variabel bersandar) individu? Manakala variabel kawalan pula bermaksud variabel (bukan setakat variabel bebas sahaja, contohnya jantina, bangsa, umur, latar belakang, dan lain-lain) yang memberi kesan perubahan kepada variabel bersandar, contohnya perbezaan minat antara golongan tua dan golongan muda terhadap Pizza. Variabel menggangu pula boleh dikatakan variabel yang tidak sengaja mengganggu perhubungan antara variabel bebas dan variabel bersandar, contohnya KFC atau McDonald boleh mempengaruhi minat individu, selain daripada Pizza.

Peringkat rawatan boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai perbandingan antara variabel bebas dengan variabel kawalan melalui peringkat yang berbeza, contohnya variabel bebas (Pizza, KFC, McDonald) dengan variabel kawalan yang melibatkan golongan tua dan muda serta jantina lelaki dan perempuan. Keadaan ini boleh mewujudkan suatu formula seperti 3x2x2, dimana ianya boleh dikembangkan sebagai 3 peringkat variabel bebas, 2 peringkat kawalan berdasarkan umur, dan 2 peringkat kawalan berdasarkan jantina. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian eksperimental mempunyai beberapa kelemahan seperti variabel rawatan wajib berlaku sebelum variabel bersandar, wujud perhubungan antara variabel rawatan dengan variabel bersandar, dan wajib hanya satu variabel rawatan yang mempengaruhi perubahan terhadap variabel bersandar (Chua, 2011). Bagi menyelesaikan masalah ini, beberapa pendekatan boleh diambil seperti membentuk kumpulan seimbang melalui teknik padanan, mengatasi masalah yang timbul melalui teknik padanan, kaedah pengagihan rawak, memanipulasikan variabel bebas, dan mencegah perbezaan yang tidak disengajakan dalam rawatan (Chua, 2011).

Kajian eksperimental benar boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai perbandingan antara golongan yang terbaik, dimana pemilihan bagi golongan ini perlu disebarkan secara rawak untuk menjalankan perbandingan antara satu sama lain bagi memilih variabel yang terbaik dalam golongan masing-masing, contohnya kumpulan rawatan dan kumpulan kawalan (Chua, 2011). Walau bagaimanapun, pembahagian secara rawak perlu disebarkan dengan sama rata, dimana ianya mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama, setanding dan seimbang. Kajian eksperimental benar boleh dibahagikan kepada ujian pasca, pra-pasca, empat kumpulan Solomon, penukar-gantian, dan faktorial (Chua, 2011).

Reka Bentuk Ujian Pasca

Penyelidikan yang menggunakan kaedah ini akan melibatkan eksperiment yang ringkas, tetapi mempunyai ketepatan dan kesahan yang tinggi, dimana sampel-sampel ini dibahagikan kepada dua kumpulan secara rawak (melibatkan variabel bebas dan variabel bersandar, tetapi mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama) dan variabel bersandar akan diuji sekali sahaja (Chua, 2011).

Reka Bentuk Pra-Pasca

Penyelidikan reka bentuk pra-pasca ialah ujian sebanyak dua kali (sebelum dan selepas eksperimen) dijalankan terhadap variabel bersandar selepas terdapat perubahan variabel bebas terhadap variabel bersandar. Dengaan kata lain, ujian pra-pasca adalah eksperimen untuk menilai kesan variabel bebas yang menyebabkan perubahan terhadap variabel bersandar (Chua, 2011).

Reka Bentuk Empat Kumpulan Solomon

Reka bentuk empat kumpulan Solomon diapplikasikan untuk menguji kewujudan kesan eksperimen (Solomon, 1949), dimana penghasilan keputusan wujud selepas sampel diuji lebih daripada sekali. Kebanyakan eksperimen, terutama dalam bidang sains tulen, akan dijalankan lebih daripada sekali bagi mendapatkan keputusan dan jawapan yang tepat dan jitu.

Reka Bentuk Penukar-Gantian

Kajian reka bentuk penukar-gantian dilakukan untuk menilai keberkesanan bahan uji terhadap sampel-sampel (Chua, 2011). Sebagai contohnya, dalam menilai kualiti air, bahan uji A akan diguna untuk menguji sampel A, manakala bahan uji B akan digunakan untuk menguji sampel B. Selepas mendapat keputusan pertama, eksperimen kali kedua akan dilakukan dengan menukar-ganti antara bahan uji A dengan bahan uji B, dimana bahan uji A menguji sampel B, dan bahan uji B menguji sampel A, dan keputusan eksperimen kedua akan dihasilkan.

Reka Bentuk Faktorial

Reka bentuk faktorial merupakan eksperimen yang dilakukan untuk menilai faktor yang mengakibatkan perubahan berlaku terhadap variabel bersandar, dimana faktor ini boleh dinilai melalui variabel bebas yang mewujudkan hubungan sebab-akibat dalam kajian (Chua, 2011). Namun reka bentuk faktorial dapat dijalankan apabila eksperimen yang dilakukan mempunyai lebih daripada dua variabel bebas atau faktor untuk dinilai. Selain daripada lima reka bentuk kajian yang diapplikasikan dalam eksperimental benar bagi bidang sains tulen, terdapat pengkaji yang menjalankan eksperimen secara pengukuran berulangan, dimana reka bentuk ujian ini boleh dibahagikan kepada reka bentuk pengukuran berulang dan reka bentuk pengukuran berasingan (Chua, 2011). Sebagai contohnya, reka bentuk pengukuran berulang ialah bahan uji A digunakan untuk uji sampel A dan B serta bahan uji B digunakan untuk uji sampel A dan B (dimana ianya diuji sebanyak dua atau tiga kali dan berbeza dari reka bentuk penukar-gantian); manakala reka bentuk pengukuran berasingan pula ialah bahan uji A digunakan untuk uji sampel A dan B, dan bahan uji B digunakan untuk uji sampel C dan D (dimana ianya diuji sebanyak sekali sahaja).

Kajian kuasi-eksperimental mempunyai persamaan dengan kajian ekspreimental benar, tetapi berbeza darisegi pemilihan sampel melalui pengagihan secara rawak (Chua, 2011). Dengan kata lain, kajian ini akan membahagikan kepada kumpulan tanpa memilih ciri-ciri yang sama antara kumpulan darisegi jantina, bangsa, umur, latar belakang, dan lain-lain, dimana variabel bebas akan dibahagikan kepada kumpulan secara semula jadi. Kajian kuasi-eksperimental boleh dibahagikan kepada ujian pra-pasca bagi kumpulan-kumpulan tidak seimbang, ujian regrasi tidak bersambungan, dan ujian siri masa (Chua, 2011). Ujian pra-pasca bagi kumpulan-kumpulan tidak seimbang adalah sama dengan ujian pra-pasca eksperimental benar, dimana ianya melibatkan kumpulan rawatan dan kumpulan kawalan, tetapi pembahagian kumpulan adalah berlaku secara semulajadi. Namun penyelidik akan berusaha untuk memilih sampel atau variabel yang mempunyai ciri-ciri yang hampir sama, sebagai contohnya sampel A dan sampel B yang diambil berada pada kawasan yang sama atau titik yang sama. Manakala ujian regrasi tidak bersambungan pula bermaksud kajian terhadap sampel yang agak lemah atau merosot, dimana sampel tersebut memerlukan rawatan khas, sebagai contohnya sampel A yang menghasilkan dua keputusan atau mata pemisahan (satu nilai tinggi dan satu nilai rendah) bagi ujian tertentu dalam sampel tersebut. Reka bentuk bagi ujian ini juga sama dengan reka bentuk ujian prapasca. Akhir sekali adalah berkaitan dengan ujian siri masa melibatkan beberapa pengukuran yang sama terhadap variabel bersandar pada tempoh yang berlainan seperti sebelum dan selepas sesuatu perubahan dilakukan. Reka bentuk ujian ini memerlukan masa dan tenaga yang panjang bagi mendapatkan keputusan.

Kajian bukan eksperimental boleh dirujuk sebagai kajian hubungan antara variabel bebas dan variabel bersandar tanpa melakukan sebarang perubahan terhadap variabel bebas, dimana variabel bebas wujud secara semulajadi (Chua, 2011). Kajian ini juga melibatkan kepada pengagihan secara rawak ke dalam kumpulan-kumpulan, seperti yang terdapat dalam kajian eksperimental. Kajian bukan eksperimental boleh dibahagikan kepada kajian tinjauan, kajian lapangan, kajian kes, kajian tindakan, dan kajian sejarah (Chua, 2011), seperti yang terdapat di dalam Jadual 1.

Kesimpulan

Rangkakerja metodologi amat penting sebelum menjalankan pengumpulan data kajian. Proses mengutip dan mengumpul data wajib mengutamakan proses perancangan, proses aplikasi dan proses analisis bagi mencapai objektif atau hipotesis kajian. Kajian literatur rangkakerja metodologi membincangkan proses perancangan melalui reka bentuk dikategorikan kepada dua perkara, iaitu eksperimental dan bukan eksperimental. Kebanyakan kaedah eksperimental diaplikasikan dalam bidang sains tulen. Manakala kaedah bukan eksperimental pula dalam bidang sains sosial. Kaedah eksperimental boleh dibahagikan kepada kajian eksperimental benar dan kajian kuasi experimental; diikuti dengan kaedah bukan eksperimental ialah kajian tinjauan, kajian lapangan, kajian kes, kajian tindakan dan kajian sejarah. Penyelidik wajib mengambil berat tentang metod yang digunakan dalam proses mengumpul data supaya kesilapan, kesalahan dan kecuaian yang boleh mencetuskan kegagalan dalam mencapai objektif dan hipotesis. Oleh itu, perancangan reka bentuk metodologi yang rapi akan mempercepatkan dan melancarkan proses mengutip data, menganalisis data, mengolah data, mempamerkan laporan dan menjadi perintis kepada penyelesaian masalah masyarakat.


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